The work conditions generally indicate the environment in which the employees live on their place of work. They include/understand the painfulness and the risks of the work carried out as well as work environment (noise, heat, exposure to toxic substances, etc).
General information
In the exercise of a given community activity, the work conditions are a whole of parameters which influence the satisfaction found daily with this activity as on the forms and degrees of Fatigue and which in the duration induce consequences that one can describe as repercussions .
The work conditions are the object of the special attention of the ergonomicists which must in very first place to seek to reduce them, of the factory inspectors charged to control the application of the Law the labor in this field, of the company doctors in charge of a periodic control of the health of the credits.
The work conditions considered as pathogenic conditions are at the border between the work and the Santé. They have consequences on the risks of Accident S; they can directly cause some Maladie S or like Risk factor to support of them others while having an influence on the Bien-être. The work conditions are thus determinants of the Life expectancy, Absentéisme and occupational diseases.
The work conditions do not comprise only material aspects; the relational life takes part in it as much, as well as the statute of employment (professional statute, duration of the contract, seniority,…).
The contents of this concept do not have simplicity only it presents. As example, it is enough to notice that the accident risk can be considered, either like a working condition, felt and accepted like such and possibly generating its own effects, or like an element intrinsic of the activity and for this reason sensitive to the whole of the work conditions (let us think of the manual cutting of the meat); two options being able to be concomittantes or not at the same individual according to his Experiment or its character.
Certain repercussions of the work conditions can be brutal: a light aggravation can for example be translated into sharp protests, initially individual, then if there is aggregation of many difficulties by Grève collective S and other movements: the improvement of the work conditions is a traditional claim relayed by the Syndicats.
The diversity and the evolution of the work conditions are of course closely related to those of work itself: in the same site, from one station to another, year to another, the conditions lived by the employee can vary notably.
Another obviousness, the continuous aspects are necessarily more outstanding than the aspects intermittent or periodic and good a Organization of work with maintenance of a certain versatility can decrease certain disadvantages related to the fixity of the tasks. Compensations in terms of rest or remuneration can also mitigate certain harmful effects for health and the moral one. Lastly, to the plan of the professional routes, of the judicious Reconversion S can limit the exposure to too noxious work conditions.
Questions of definition
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It acts to put aside certain aspects work and to know if it is acceptable or not. All then depends to know if it is possible to even dissociate an aspect of work him, in contrary case it could not have made assessment there. For example, the roofers of roof were subjected regularly to accidents fatal during their work (falls of a roof). That was regarded as energy of pair with the profession. Today that is not acceptable any more. From there it is possible to determine pathologies concerned with work. The problem is that the recognition of these pathologies and various sufferings is resulting from a construction (experts, employee,…). On the one hand dissociation is necessary to isolate a work condition but on the other hand this condition becomes it even reducing sufferings of the employee.
From the opposed point of view, it is as much difficult to clarify what constitutes good conditions of work (the absence of sufferings does not mean the existence of good conditions of work). The good conditions can be expressed like such: it is those “which give to the worker freedom work favorable to its health” (Volkoff). Another possibility of knowing (to objectify) the work conditions: a relative variation in time, improvement or qualitative degradation that groups of employees underline. Another report/ratio can be established: the comparison with the time except work or in another manner extra living conditions undertaken.
Certain institutional actors are likely to help to become aware of the work conditions through the development of information bound for the employees, in particular by the trade unions and the State (S.Volkoff takes again the example of the road safety campaigns bound for the truck drivers) or associations (company doctors, ecologists, associations of victims of occupational diseases), the factory inspectorate, the company doctors. Example: the movement of the nurses at the end of the years 1980 shows that the perception of the work conditions was modified (into 84,40% estimate that they are brought to transport heavy loads, in 91 passage at 70%; that can be explained by the engineering changes of the management of health).
These elements make it possible to say that the work conditions concern a political question and social. The research must determine how the company and the policies tackle this question and which solutions are selected to cure it. The scientists have the role of clarifying the debate. A multi-field approach is possible, with sociology, ergonomics, psychology, the socio-economy of work and employment.
- There exist however several ways of breaking up work. On the one hand, the analytical steps in epidemiology, occupational psychology, ergonomics seek to show the relation between an aspect of work and health or the performance. It is about a step general, which tends by its bases to occult the characteristic of each worker (research are taken on an individual " moyen" , without particular characteristics in terms of physical capacities, characters, etc….). In ergonomics, this current of the human factors proceeds by experiments in laboratories, by succession of tests on a standard individual. For a field like hygiene on the other hand, an epidemiologic step can be justified with studies on the toxicity of the products for example. statistical studies on the work conditions with a synthetic approach: 1978 by the DARES, renewed in 84 91 98 range out of 20.000 people; supplemented into 87 on the organization of work and psychological data 93 then fusion into 98. The human factors make it possible to lead to many applications, in particular in the design of tools or equipment, the installation of standards. However two difficulties: variation of the situations of work and the populations on the one hand, on the other hand the risk is to believe that a conformity to the standards is enough.
- Another current is dissociated clearly, in particular in the French-speaking countries, by using the concept of activity (in party resulting from Soviet and Scandinavian research). That starts with the distinction between the task (environment, procedures, objectives, means) and the activity it even: in the production process, the man interacts with his environment. It is about a complex process, for any type of work including for repetitive work: constant acquisition of information, observation, listening, reasoning, choice of the gestures to be carried out and execution, in an environment which can be unstable. The interest is the determination of the factors of instability and in addition comprehension of the compromises necessary to the realization of the activity. For example, the design of ergonomic tools can appear ineffective so in same time the employee is brought to change positions (for environmental reasons of instability).
Nature of the work conditions
The temporal framework
The tallies temporal of work is an important subset of the work conditions: it is of a large variety in particular in the Industrie with the imposed rates/rhythms or the shift work , but also in services like the restoration or the hospital. Also return in these parameters, the duration of daily displacements between the residence and the work place.
Let us quote the type of schedules, the variability of the daily duration of work, the pauses and vacation, the Overtime, the night-work and the schedules shifted, the part times , the encroachment of work over the time of leisure, etc
The rate/rhythm S imposed and other parameters more specifically related to the Productivité raise of the temporal pressure : they are a worsening factor of the other lived conditions or can transform simple qualitative requirements into constraints prejudicial, a partial deficiency in situation ingérable.
Physical constraints
The physical constraints are closely related on the tasks carried out and the Environnement:
- mechanical requests (efforts, painful posture, permanent attention, repetitive gestures and displacements, jolts and vibrations,…) ;
- exposures to various harmful effects, pollutants or chemical agents or biological (draft or bad weather, noises, dust and smoke, temperatures and moisture abnormal, chemicals birds, poisons, radiation S, disease-causing agents,…) ;
- risks of wounds or accidents which enter for a share the physical constraints, the evaluation of the risks being partly psychological.
The architectural factors such as the conditions of lighting (natural/artificial) or the quality of the buildings (exiguity, elements esthetic, quality of the Air-conditioning, seen on outside,…) belong to the physical parameters.
These levels of constraints can be located using indicating of physical painfulness .
The impact of the physical constraints is often fast and not very reversible, thus the accumulation of excessive efforts involves musculo-skeletal disorders or pathologies causing a premature Vieillissement.
Psychological requests
The psychological or psychosocial requests are the features of the activity and its framework which lead to the Stress if they exceed the capacities of the individual. They can be closely related to the activity ( cognitive requirements ) or depend on broader conditions (responsibility, latent fear of the error, interindividual reports/ratios and environment of work in particular), to see very broad like fear to be laid off.
The psychopathology of work gives place to few diagnoses. Certain effects are noticed all the same, like the burn out (extreme situation of tiredness, particularly in the social sectors, the hospitals for example). C. Dejours (psychiatrist and psychoanalyst) watch that the variation growing between the made efforts and remuneration cause an increase in psychiatric risks. More still, they are the engineering and environmental changes work in the néo-liberal organization (" the new spirit of the capitalisme" E. Chiapello and L. Boltanski) which can be in the beginning new evils (small disorders of health: sleep, pains lumbar, moral harassing).
The relationship with the public
With the development of the tertiary sector, the activities which include/understand an unspecified interaction with a public are increasingly numerous: one estimates at two thirds the proportion of the employees concerned.
The usual relation with a public adds new parameters to the temporal, physical and mental components of the work conditions: with the hierarchical requirements, unite the often complex requirements of the people met or interviews, all requirements which can agree only partially with the personal designs of the employee.
Social conditions
This last category indistinctly gathers the factors which depend on the general terms of work and employment in the company and which the individual bring with him at the time of his recruiting or for example if the offer of employment rarefies. These factors are attached to the psychological requests insofar as the excess demand on the offer hardening the dependence of paid with its employment (according to the type of work contract) increases its level of psychic tension.
These conditions are all the more prégnantes that the employee is itself strongly dependant on his employment for personal reasons (household head, debts, experiment of unemployment…) and that it does not have in addition only good possibilities of a new employment.
Emanating from the economic situation, these conditions do not have theoretical limits; it is enough for example to imagine the effects on the work of the least sign of sudden development of competition or more directly of difficulties of the company itself.
Typical locations and individual
All the individuals are not equal vis-a-vis the requirements and constraints of an activity, which stresses the importance of:
- orientation and of the professional recruitment for the agreement of employment to the individual capacities;
- of the ergonomic concerns for the adaptation of the tasks and the stations;
- the Professional training for the best controls and a greater autonomy.
Certain categories of people presenting a particular vulnerability are particularly sensitive to the work conditions:
- * handicapped people
- * people suffering from chronic diseases or with slow evolution
- * the expectant mothers
- * the people who can be regarded as psychologically fragile (depressive state, alcoholic dependence,…).
- * people likely to suffer from discriminations or particular pressures (tasks or trades devalued, initial, temporary,…).
- * people suffering from chronic diseases or with slow evolution
The effect of the age
The ageing of manpower requires installations in the organization of work. Indeed, the course work of an employee shows that the modification physics of an employee change with the age. The older wage earner can remain quite as powerful, as well from the point of view of quality as of the execution, simply its gestures will have to be more adapted (example of a workman on a chain which adapts its positions to avoid resorting to more fragile members; to arrange its way of doing, the workspace must thus be important). The old workers in a phase of intensification of work are despite everything the first victims, in particular in the sectors requiring on the physical level, with an obvious effect of ousting, leading sometimes to the selectivity. Return on the effects of the increased flexibility started by the novel modes of organization of work, which draw the contour of the new liberal model néo.
This increased flexibility is reflected on the work hours and in fact on the private life of the employees. Tendency: today 7 contracts out of 10 are not normal contracts (normality compared to the labor regulation, i.e. a full-time TDCI). Part time passed from 9% into 84 to 18% at the end from the 90. The consequences are multiple and all the more important as they are the women who are mainly touched (more than 4/5 of part times). Those have a social role of very first order in the family, in particular in the assumption of responsibility of the children. Chamboulement of the work hours can also enter in contradiction with the rate/rhythm biological, known as circadian (24h). Certain functions are of effects more active for periods of the cycles. The rate/rhythm of work can thus enter in contradiction with this rate/rhythm such as for example the shift with the meals, the attention, the rate/rhythm of the sleep, ect…
This flexibility is also translated in uncertainty, in particular in large distribution, at the executives (it is nevertheless about a personal installation within the framework of fixed price), in the transport (truck drivers in particular, whose schedules depend on particularly unforeseeable work conditions), the maintenance of nuclear industries.
The situation in France
Impact on health
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In France, the public speech around the question of health is limited to the medical speech restricting the framework with the individual, by occulting work. From where the problem of its social construction and the problems of visibility that generates. In addition, the scientific evaluation of the effects of work also raises interrogations as for the methods to be used. It is for example necessary to connect the mental health, physical, the general framework of life (stress, irritations, pains, discomfort). In addition, a contrario the absence of work can generate other forms of pathologies, like the depression, alcoholism, ect… " The chômage". Health can thus be defined like such: “To be in form, to feel free, which implies as much the feeling to have bar on the things as the knowledge and the acceptance of its own limits; finally, to perceive the continuation of the events like a unit likely to make direction and to constitute a history. ” " Recovery psychique" 1998.
- In France, the data are collected by the CNAM-TS in fact limited by its objectives: to measure the expenditure. For the occupational diseases, their definition requires an important legal work. The recognition of an occupational disease depends on its membership of a restrictive list of pathologies, related to certain factors. This one is in constant negotiation between the trade unions and the contractors, which can leave many pathologies on side. With this extremely limited system, an accountancy exists and the company lays down targets in precise figure thus on the matter.
- Orders of magnitude: in the years 1990, the number of accidents with sick leave varied between 650.000 and 680.000 per 14 million employees concerned with the mode general of Secu; 50.000-60.000 were described as low register and gave place to the payment of a permanent revenue; 700-800 resulted in death. On the national plan, the accident frequency rate is of 25 accidents with sick leave/million hours worked, the severity rate is of 1 day not travaillée/1000 hours worked, in the long run a fall of these indicators is observed but with a progression of average gravity - effect of the small accidents the number of occupational diseases in the year is about 10.000, in strong increase with causes of the skeletal disorders musculo.
- the relations work/health are neither univocal nor instantaneous. A characteristic of work can have several effects (like the noise for example). Some turbid can have several origins, professional and nonprofessional (like the sleep disorders). In another direction, a degradation of health exploits the quality of work (a pain of a member can bring to a more important request of another). Sometimes the effects are differed (asbestos).
- Certaines work conditions can generate serious diseases. To be able to observe the differences in life expectancy between certain social categories, it is more convincing to be interested in the differences between the categories of the same profession (the standard of living is equivalent, the effects due to work are thus clarified). Each year between 5.000 et10.000 death are ascribable with cancers of professional origin. Work would play in occurred of 5% of cancers (12000 per annum due to work for party at least). The list of the carcinogenic products evolves/moves according to the scientific knowledge but the conditions under which are these products are harmful are more difficult to determine (quantity, handling, exposure time). Examples: dust of wood, mineral oils, benzene (protection in chemical industry but by for the mechanics which handle them regularly).
Physical constraints
According to the investigation of 1998, the three quarters of the employees stated to make physical efforts or to undergo physical constraints. The repetition of certain movements, displacements, upright prolonged station can involve a health risk of the employees. The recrudescence of the physical disorders (which relate to two million workers potentially, in the trade, transport), in particular the skeletal disorders musculo can result from the Intensification of work, with for example the suppression of the abstract pauses, the temporal pressure, the emergencies. Problem: attacks ms are not recognized very little like such. Approximately 500.000 people are reached ms of professional origin.
Noise: there are risk when the noise exceeds 85 Décibel S all the day or 135 dblA for the strongest noises. It is about a social consensus, the sensitivity of the individuals being variable. In addition the conditions under which the noise intervenes has its importance according to whether the noise is undergone or produced by the employee (background music in certain activities for example) with strongly negative effects on the moral one (stress, irritability,…) moreover direct consequences (deafness,… clarified in the investigations: the difference in auditive perception between the executives and the workmen is considerable).
Social variations of the work conditions
The work conditions are often used in the political discourses, which in particular makes it possible to forge a collective identity. The workman for example was put forward by the CGT, the CFDT on the other hand underlined the inequalities between men and women, some will advance the idea of the workman behind his computer which monitors an automated process, or the figure of the civil servant behind his office or for defense the nurse subjected to precarious work conditions. These speeches can bring to move away from the real work conditions.
- the working sector, although declining with the rise to power of the services in the economy, remains subjected to extremely painful conditions on the physical level (wearing of heavy loads, work in dirtiness,…). Increased mechanization is accompanied besides by additional constraints for the workmen, in particular by the importance of the night-work: the capital is shown a profit to the maximum with the detriment of comfort of the workmen. Those remain also subjected to a strong hierarchy (disciplinary devices).
- executives: it is about a category which gathers a broad panel of professions, frameworks of the public office, professors and researchers, doctors paid, artists and journalists… As regards work conditions, the executives are characterized in particular by a physical protection with respect to the environment: the work place is clean, they have few physical efforts to realize (except possibly at the visual level). They have a strong autonomy to carry out their objectives (see social sciences). They are thus not subjected to a Taylorization of the organization of work even if they are controlled regularly and have a rate/rhythm of work determined by… their colleagues, the customers or the users. It is about an ambivalent category where the relative freedom they have pay with a rather heavy personal investment, in particular in term of schedules (flexible, they must adapt at the requests of the customers, with the exceptional activity,…)
- public service: many frameworks and few workmen, with many professions in liaison with the public (teachers, police officers, nurses, doctors,…) with more widespread atypical schedules. The variability of the schedules is larger in the public services but it is controlled better. The problem is in the tensions which can appear in the contact with the users (increasingly many poor population).
- the independent ones: when the professions approach, the work conditions are similar. From the point of view of the work conditions, the small farmers are in first line vis-a-vis the market. They can profit from the organization of the firm to avoid the direct contact with the customers but the constraints on the schedules are very strong (1/2 states to finish their day 11:00 after having begun it, plus 1/3 work 6/7). In addition these painful conditions are accepted as being part of work (it is necessary to be under pressure to succeed,…). It is however necessary to distinguish the small entrepreneurs from the chairmen of the more large companies which can sub-contracting at leisure.
- Work conditions and segment of the labor - workers. The installation of Taylorization was done against an high level of wages. The women did not profit from it because of male domination, of the consideration concerning their statute (it would be about auxiliary wages). Previously the women could evolve to uses of service with better conditions. Today this precariousness reproduced in the services. The problem is that one of the part of the women interiorized this type of behavior.
- European Comparisons: study (95) of the European foundation for the improvement of the work conditions. All in all, the results leave think that the bond between growth and work conditions is positive. Indeed, the comparison enters of the countries having a delay economic development (Greece) and of the more advanced countries on the matter watch of strong disparities. However, by studying more closely the case of certain countries, in particular France, the bond is perhaps not also obvious (poor conditions in physical term of painfulness for example).
The organization of work
The organization is paramount to succeed in setting up good conditions of work, with the image of the truck drivers (time for unloadings of goods), for the construction of the know-how of prudence in the building (Dejours shows that the stability of manpower plays positively).
- On the one hand, it appears that the old forms of organization of work are harmful for the employee. On the one hand because of totalitarian aspect in the family/domestic organization which flashes back until in the private life. The organization taylorienne as for it has many impacts, as well on the physical level as on the cognitive capacities of paid (annoys deep employees).
- the new organizations are on the other hand more demanding in the field of the intensity. Indeed, S.Volkof distinguishes two types of constraints: industrial and commercial. The industrial constraint results in output norms set for the employees. The commercial constraint is constituted by the need for adaptation to the request. Whereas at the beginning of the 80' two constraints were distinct, those tend more and more to accumulate: requirement for a minimal productivity for the employee with in addition adaptation to the peak periods (cf Thomas Coutrot). For the employee, that results in high rates/rhythms and situations urgently disturbing and harmful on the nervous level.
- Consequences of the intensification: raise rates/rhythms, therefore addition of necessary efforts. The increased intensity is felt by the organization like an aggression, this one reacts then by a rigidification, i.e. a contraction of the muscles, causes pains. The urgency necessarily does not make it possible to adopt optimal postures. It is the case in particular for employment cumulating the two types of constraints, that it is in auto industry (assembly line work and diversification) and in the services (health, distribution). In the long term, that can be concretized by infrapathologies (nonserious pathologies in the short run but which can be transformed into constant embarrassment in the long run, such as for example for the cervical ones,…). By comparison, the statistical surveys clearly show the difference with the employee not undergoing these constraints.
- Good and bad organization: the quality of the work conditions rises directly from the choices of organization: if the parts arrive late on a chain, they will have to be assembled in urgency, if an intervention on a building site requires several trade associations, one needs a good coordination to avoid a certain number of risks, in the same way for the counter clerk submitted to the customers. A distance between social groups in the company can directly slow down the possibilities of setting up an good organization.
- Robert Karasek (which established a model of stress) watch however that the good being with work (psychological) is of a multidimensional nature with the degree of autonomy granted to the employee, the degree of requirement and the support of the colleagues. In fact it is a question of replacing in the center the environment surrounding the employee in order to take into account the organisational innovations well. Thus the intensification can have various effects according to whether the employee has the means of facing this situation (material, personnel…) or not.
Consequently, the definition of an good organization becomes restrictive: it is necessary to be able to give a relative autonomy to the employee, to ensure a certain stability in term of career and schedules, to limit the emergencies… Also the difficulty of the notation in the large companies arises: the méritocratie can be beneficial in certain cases, in particular for the powerful employees, resulting from the school and accustomed to this procedure of notation. That form can be ambivalent insofar as the constant pressure produces waitings of paid in term of career and valorization, which cannot always be satisfied. This pressure cannot be perpetually supported, with the risk of an exhaustion. In addition the careers can be influenced by personal events, like maternity for the women. The risk then is all to sacrifice to the detriment of the personal life.
Evolution of the work conditions
Between the beginning of XXe and the beginning of XXIe century, the evolution of the work conditions seems to be improved with progressive disappearance of unhealthy tasks and the improvement of the conditions of hygiene and safety. In addition, of deep changes in the structure of employment in France they even had reflected on the organization of work, with in particular the rise to power of the services. However progress is not automatic and it is by the intervention of the whole of the actors concerned that these modifications intervene, through space socio-policy.
The dematerialization of work intervened as from the years 1970 seems limited. On a side of the physical constraints are drawn aside, of the security conditions are improved, the most constraining tasks can be isolated (painting for example), but on another side that requires expensive heavy equipment and thus an important maintenance. The consequences are thus to moderate since that involves a rise of the schedules of night, new constraining postures.
The insertion of the computer tools is also an example of the ambivalent effects that progress can bring. On a side this one brings a certain degree of autonomy for the worker and also reduces the physical constraints (for the workmen for example). However they are also put directly in contact with the market: a new psychological constraint. Actors concerned: market (theory of the compensatory differences), public action (regulation), trade unions, workers (phenomena of defense).
Factors influencing the evolution of the work conditions
The quality of the work conditions results from the choices and the means of the employer or the free lance. These choices are influenced by its perception of the context (payments, standards, situation of the job market, relative cost of different the option, etc), by its values and its personal ethics.
The employees can intervene in favor of an improvement of the work conditions through the trade-union relation and for the large companies through the persons in charge of the Comité of Hygiene of Safety and of the Work conditions, like by Social movements. A power struggle favorable to the Paid S or the employer can have as a consequence an improvement or a degradation of the work conditions. Contrary, a disorganization of the employees coupled to a context of legislative laxism in this field will involve a degradation of these conditions.
The suicide due to too important working stresses
Since the years 1990 and the perpetuation of unemployment, the employees are more attentive to preserve their work, even if it means to provide extra efforts: physical efforts, but also going beyond of oneself, all categories of workers confused.According to Doctor Patrick Legéron, the cases of suicide to work started to take of the emplor only since the years 2000.
These new working stresses can be fatal with certain workers, who not resisting, put an end to their days. The causes are multiple: stress, overload, harassing or fear of losing its employment.
The cause and effect link between work conditions and the suicide can be obtained by a letter of the person who commits suicide, by testimonys of the entourage, the attending physician or the company doctor.
In France, the suicides due to work conditions are estimated by the Economic and Social Council at a death per day (300 to 400 suicides per annum for professional reasons).
Last cases of mediatized suicides related to the nuclear plant of Chinon (EDF) and Renault.
Examples
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trade-union Factor: the capacity of organization of the workers conditions the power struggle, a powerful Syndicat will be able to obtain more than one weak trade union, a employers weakens will have to yield more things.
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Factor development : the standard of living of the zone plays on what is obliged to offer the Employeur in Salaire as in conditions of work. It can arrive (it is the case for example for a French mark of large distribution in Thailand, and that had been it for American manufacturers of computers in France) that the employer has a bias to offer wages higher than the average in order to make sure the choice of the best elements for his expansion.
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Factor unemployment : the situation of the job market can influence the work condition. For example, with the release, French employers was politically weakened because of the collaboration of many heads of undertaking, which, jointly with the weakness of the rate of Chômage, involved an improvement of the work conditions.
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Factor government : the government can choose via the Labor regulation more or less to give rights or capacities with the Salarié S, the trade-union actors, the company doctors, the service of hygiene…
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stock exchange Factor : without rational bond with the reality of the company, the shareholders can claim an increase in their dividends, which will be able to result in a degradation of the work conditions to the profit of a better short-term profitability, if there is failure of the trade-union factor.
Temptation is large for Multinationale S to locate their production where the rights of the workers are less. The act of Consuming purchase of the S, which can make play ethical criteria is one of the means of influencing this tendency. Another is the internationalization of the union action and its coordination with of ONG environmental, consumers' associations…
Some figures
Even if the work conditions are not any more those of 1880, one counts each year, in France, approximately 750 industrial accidents mortals, 4500 serious accidents with handicap, 700 000 industrial accidents with stops, of tens of thousands of case of occupational diseases.
In the world, one counts 2 million dead an industrial accident each year (1 every 15 seconds), 350 000 per direct accident and the remainder thereafter of diseases (of which 400 000 by the exposure to harmful chemicals). ILO account 160 million victims of occupational diseases.
Sources
- Cristofari Marie-France, Assessment of the quantitative sources in the field of health and the professional route , Center of studies of employment, October 2003.
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