Turgot - SpeedyLook encyclopedia

Years of training

He is youngest wire of Michel-Etienne Turgot, Prévôt of the merchants of Paris, and Madeleine Francoise Martineau de Brétignolles, a former family Norman. He is educated by the Church, and with the Sorbonne, to which he is allowed in 1749. He is called then the abbot of Brucourt. He gives two remarkable Latin essays , the advantages which the Christian religion brought to the mankind , and on History of progress in the human spirit . The first sign that we have of his interest for the economy is a letter of 1749 on banknote, writes with his/her comrade the abbot of Cicé, and refuting defense by the Terrasson abbot of the Système of Law. It is impassioned for poetry and tries to introduce into the poetic Frenchwoman the rules of the prosody Latin E. Its translation of the fourth book of Énéide is accommodated by Voltaire like the only translation in prose where it found least enthusiasm.

In 1750, it decides not to return in the orders, and justifies itself some, according to Dupont de Nemours, by saying that it cannot carry a mask all his life. In 1752, it becomes substitute, and to advise later with the Parlement of Paris, and, in 1753, Maître of the requests. In 1754, it belongs to the royal room which sits during an exile of the Parliament. In 1755 and 1756, it accompanies Gournay, then intendant of trade, in his rounds of inspection in the provinces, and in 1760, while it travels in the east of France and in Suisse, it returns visit to Voltaire, with whom it binds friendship. In Paris, he attends the living rooms, in particular those of Francoise de Graffigny - which one supposes that he wanted to marry the niece, Miss de Ligniville (“Iron ore”), later Mrs Helvétius and his friend with vie - Mrs Geoffrin, Madam of Deffand, Julie de Lespinasse and the duchess of Envilie. It is for this period that it meets the theorists Physiocrate S, Quesnay and Gournay, and with them Dupont de Nemours, the abbot Morellet and other economists.

In parallel, he studies the various branches of science, and the languages at the same time old and modern. In 1753, it translates the Questions about the trade of English Josiah Tucker, and writes its Lettres on the tolerance , and a lampoon, the Conciliator , in defense of the religious tolerance. Between 1755 and 1756, it composes various articles for the Encyclopédie , and between 1757 and 1760, an article on the Valeurs of the currencies , probably for the Dictionnaire the commercial of the Morellet abbot. In 1759, appears its Éloge of Gournay .

Intendant

In August 1761, Turgot is named intendant of the Généralité of Limoges, which includes some of the most surtaxed areas poorest and France. There remained 13 years there. It is already deeply marked by the theories of Quesnay and Gournay, and gets busy to apply them as much as possible in its province. Its first idea is to continue the work, already started with its Tourny predecessor, to make a statement of the territory (Cadastre), in order to arrive at a more exact estimate for the size. It also obtains a broad reduction in the contribution of the province. It publishes a Avis on the plate and the distribution of the size (1762 - 1770), and like chair Company of agriculture of Limoges, offers prices for experiments on the principle of taxation. Quesnay and Mirabeau them proposed a tax proportional (“tax of share”), but it is a distributive tax (“tax of distribution”) which proposes Turgot. Another idea is substitution with regard to the Corvée S of a tax in currency raised on the whole province, the construction of roads being given to contracteurs, this in order to establish a solid network while more precisely distributing the expenditure of its construction.

In 1769, it writes its Mémoire on the loans with interest , at the time of the crisis caused by an accounting scandal with Angouleme. It is the first time that the question of the loan is treated scientifically, and either only from one religious point of view. Among the other work written during the intendance of Turgot are reproduced the Mémoire on the mines and careers and the Mémoire on the mark of irons , in which he protests against the official standards and the intervention of the State, and defends the free competition. At the same time, it makes much to encourage local agriculture and industries, inter alia the Manufacture S of Porcelaine. During the famine of 1770 - 1771, it applies to the landowners the obligation to help the poor and particularly their sharecroppers, and organizes in all the workshops of the province of the offices of charity to provide an activity to those able to work, and a help with the disabled person. In parallel, he condemns nondiscriminatory charity. One can note that Turgot makes Curé S, when it can, agents of its charities and its reforms. It is in 1770 that he writes his famous Lettres on the freedom of the trade of the grains addressed to the General inspector of finances, the abbot Terray. Three of these letters disappeared, having been sent to Louis XVI by Turgot recovered later and ever, but those which remain show that the free trade is interest of the landowner, the farmer and also of the consumer, and require a withdrawal of the restrictions vigorously.

One of the most known work of Turgot, Reflections on the formation and the distribution of the richnesses , is written at the beginning of its intendance, the benefit of two students Chinese. In 1766, it writes the Éphémérides of the citizen , which appear in 1769 - 1770 in the newspaper of Dupont de Nemours, and are published separately in 1776. Dupont, however, deteriorated the text to put it more in agreement with the doctrines of Quesnay, which cools its relations with Turgot.

After having traced the origin of the trade, Turgot develops the theory of Quesnay according to which the ground is the only source of richness, and divides the company into three classes, the farmers, the employees or the craftsmen, and the owners. After having discussed the evolution of the various farming systems, nature of the exchanges and negotiations, currency, and function of the capital, it chooses the theory of the “single tax”, according to which only the net profit of the ground must be taxed. Moreover, he once again asks the total freedom of the trade and industry.

Minister

Turgot is named minister of Maurepas, the mentor of the king, to which it was warmly recommended by the Very abbot, a mutual friend. Its nomination as Minister for the Navy in July 1774 is well accommodated, in particular by the philosophers. One month later, it is named General inspector of finances. Its first act is to submit to the king a statement of principles: no the Bankruptcy, not of increase in taxation, not of loan. The policy of Turgot, vis-a-vis a despaired financial position, is to force with strict economies in all the ministries. All the expenditure must from now on be subjected for approval to the controller. A certain number of sinecures are removed, and their compensated holders. The abuses the “assets the cash” are fought, however that Turgot personally calls upon the king against the generous gift of employment and pensions.

It also considers a great reform of the general farm, but is satisfied, at the beginning, to impose its conditions during the renewal of the beams: more effective employees, suppression of the abuses the Croups (name given to a class of pensions) - reform that abbot Terray had dodged, having noted how much people well placed there were interested. Turgot cancels also certain tenant farming, like those for the manufacture of and the administration gunpowder of the transport, entrusted before to a company whose Antoine Lavoisier is to advise. Later, it replaces the service of diligence by others more comfortable which are called “Turgotine S”. It prepares an ordinary budget.

Measurements of Turgot succeed in reducing the deficit considerably, and improve the national credit as well as in 1776, right before its fall, it is possible for him to negotiate a loan with 4% with bankers, but the deficit is still so important that it prevents it from immediately testing the installation of its favorite idea, the replacement of the indirect taxes by a tax on the real estate. It removes however good number of grantings and minor taxes, and is opposed on the basis of finance of the country to the participation of France in the Guerre of independence of the United States of America, without success.

Turgot immediately is put at work to establish the free trade in the field of the grains (suppression of the Droit of market dues), but its decree, signed the September 13rd 1774, meets a strong opposition in the Conseil even of the king. The preamble to this decree, exposing the doctrines on which it is founded, gains the praise of the philosophers to him but also the mocking remarks of the beautiful spirits, as Turgot rewrites it three times to return it “if purified as any judge of village could explain it to the peasants. ” Turgot becomes the target of all those which took interest with the speculations on the grain under the mode of the abbot Terray, which includes princes of blood. Moreover, the trade of corns was a favorite subject of the living rooms and spiritual the Galiani, the adversary of the Physiocrate S, has many partisans. The opposition of the time is the fact of Linguet and Necker, which in 1775 published its Essai on the legislation and the trade of the grains .

However, the worst enemy of Turgot proves to be the poor harvest of 1774, which leads to the rise of the bread price during the winter 1774 and spring 1775. In April the disturbances emerge to Dijon, and at the beginning of May the great riots frumentaires known take place like the “Guerre of the flours”, which can be regarded as the harbinger of the French revolution. Turgot shows of a great firmness and a great mind of decision in the repression of the riots, and profits from the support of Louis XVI. Its position is strengthened by the entry of Malesherbes among the ministers in July 1775.

As regards its relations with Adam Smith, written Turgot: “I flattered myself, even his friendship and estimates, I never had that of his correspondence” , but there is no doubt that Adam Smith met Turgot with Paris and it is generally allowed that the richness of the nations must much in Turgot.

Lastly, Turgot presents to the Conseil of the king in January 1776 his famous Six Décrets of Turgot . On the six, four are of secondary importance. Both which met an opposition forces are the decree removing the royal Corvée and the suppression of the Jurande S and controls (Corporation S). In the preamble, Turgot announces its objective courageously to abolish the privileges and to subject the three orders to taxation - the Clergé was then exempted by it, in particular at the request of Maurepas. In the preamble with the decree on the Jurande S, it fixes like principle the right of each man to work, without restriction.

It obtains the recording of the decrees by the Lit of justice of March 12th, but at this time, almost everyone is against him. Its attacks against the privileges gained to him the hatred of the nobility and the Parlement; its reform of the House of the king, that of the Court; its legislation of free trade that “of financial”; its opinions on the tolerance and its countryside against the oaths of the Sacring with respect to the Protestants, that of the clergy; finally, its decree on the jurandes that of the rich middle-class of Paris and others, like the Prince de Conti, whose interests are committed. The queen Marie-Antoinette hardly likes it since he was opposed to the granting of favors to his favorites, like M {{me}} of Polignac.

All could still go well if Turgot preserved the confidence of the king, but the king does not fail to see that Turgot does not have the support of the other ministers. Even his/her friend Malesherbes thinks that it is too impetuous. The unpopularity of Maurepas goes also increasing. That it is by jealousy of ascending that Turgot acquired on the king, or by the natural incompatibility of their characters, Maurepas rocks against Turgot and is reconciled with the queen. It is about this time that a booklet appears, Songe of Mr. Maurepas , generally allotted to the count de Provence (future Louis XVIII), containing an acid caricature of Turgot.

With the Physiocrat S, Turgot believes in the enlightened aspect of the political Absolutisme and counts on the king to conclude all the reforms. As for the Parliaments, he was opposed to any intervention of their share in the legislation, considering that they were not any competent out the sphere of justice. He recognizes the danger of the old Parliaments, but appears unable to be opposed to it effectively since he was associated with the reference Maupeou and abbot Terray and seems to have underestimated to be able to them. He is opposed to the convocation General states recommended by Malesherbes the May 6th 1775, probably because of the important capacity that there the two privileged orders have. Its personal plan is in its Mémoire on the municipalities, which was submitted in an abstract way to the king. In the system suggested by Turgot, the owners alone must train the electorate, no distinction being made between the three orders. The inhabitants of the cities must elect representatives by municipal zone, who in their turn elect the provincial municipalities, and these last a great municipality, which does not have any legislative power, but must be consulted for the establishment of the taxes. It is necessary to combine with it a complete system of education, and charity aiming at relieving the poor.

Louis XVI moves back in front of the extent of the plan of Turgot. It remains in Turgot to choose between a surface reform of the existing system and a total reform of the privileges - but one would have needed for that a popular minister and a strong king.

The fall

The immediate cause of the fall of Turgot is dubious. Some speak about a plot, letters manufactured of all parts, and allotted to Turgot, container of the attacks on the queen Marie-Antoinette, of a series of notes on the budget of Turgot prepared, says one, by Necker and shown to the king to prove his incapacity. Others allot it to the queen and there is no doubt about its hatred of Turgot since it supported Vergennes in the business of the count de Guines.

Others allot it to an intrigue Maurepas. Indeed, after the resignation of Malesherbes in April 1776, Turgot tries to place one of its candidates. Very dissatisfied, Maurepas proposes to the king like his successor one named Amelot. Turgot, learning it, writes a letter made indignant with the king, and shows him in energetic terms the dangers of a weak ministry, complains bitterly about indecision about Maurepas and the tender about this last to the intrigues about court. Although Turgot asked for Louis XVI of keep the confidential letter, the king the watch with Maurepas.

With all these enemies, the fall of Turgot is certain, but it tries to remain at its station long enough to finish its project of the reform of the Maison of the king, before resigning. That is not even granted to him: May 12th, one has orders to him to send his resignation. It withdraws as of the May 13rd 1776, leaving for the Rock-Guyon with the castle the duchess Enville, then goes back to Paris, where it devotes the remainder of its life to the scientific studies and arts persons. In 1777, it is made vice-president of the Académie of the inscriptions and the humanities.

Its tomb is near that of his/her father Michel-Etienne Turgot, in the vault of the old Laennec hospital, in Paris 7th.

Personality

Turgot is a man simple, honourable and right, impassioned justice and of truth. It is an idealist, his enemies would say doctrinary and the terms “of the natural rights”, “the natural law”, are frequently under its feather. His/her friends speak about his charm and its cheerfulness in the close relations, but surrounded by foreigners, it is quiet and awkward, and gives an impression of reserve and scorn. Such an amount of his/her friends whom its enemies agree on a point: its brusqueness and its lack of tact in the human relations; Oncken announces, with reason, the tone of “schoolmaster” of his correspondence, even with the king.

The judgments are shared in connection with its qualities of statesman, but it is generally considered that it is at the origin of a great number of the reforms and ideas of the French revolution. Often they are not its own ideas, but one him must make them public. Concerning its qualities of economist, the opinions are also divided. Oncken, to take most negative of the opinions, sees it like a bad Physiocrate and a confused thinker, while Leon Say considers that he is the founder of the modern political economy and that “although he failed the XVIIIe century, he triumphed with XIXe”. Judgment shared by Murray Rothbard, which there sees the largest economist of the XVIIIe century with Cantillon and estimates that, on certain points, the economic theory lost several tens of years while not being inspired by its designs:

" it was a single genius, which it is nevertheless difficult to say of the Physiocrats. Its comprehension of the economic theory was incommensurably higher than their, and the way in which it treated the capital and the interest is almost unequalled still aujourd'hui."

For Schumpeter, its theory of the pricing of the rates was

"almost irreproachable and, put aside an explicit formulation of the principle marginalist, is at a palpable distance from that of Böhm-Bawerk. "

The theory of the saving, the investment and the capital was " first serious analysis of these questions" and

"held remarkably a long time. It is doubtful that Alfred Marshall managed to exceed it, and certain that J.S. Mill did not do it. Böhm-Bawerk undoubtedly added a new branch there but, essentially, it had taken again the proposals of Turgot.

" The theory of the interest of Turgot is " not only the greatest exploit of the XVIIIème century, but it clearly preceded a good part of the best reflections of the last decades of XIXème.

All in all,

"there is practically no discernible error in this very first treaty of the value and the distribution, treaty whose mode was going so much to develop in the last decades of the XIXème century. It is not to exaggerate only to say that the economic analysis took one century to be found where it could have been twenty years about it after the publication of the Treaty of Turgot if its contents had been correctly included/understood and assimilated by a profession more éveillée".