Toxorhynchites

The Toxorhynchites form only the kind of Moustique of the family of the Culicidae , of the subfamily of the Toxorhynchitinae . This kind comprises a hundred species classified in four pennies kinds, primarily distributed in the tropical and subtropical areas of the world.

These mosquitos are remarkable in more than one way. For example they are, and by far, the largest mosquitos in the world, measuring between 0,5 to 1,5 cm. Their color with the metallic lusters is notable. and their total harmlessness at the adult stage with respect to the vertebrate ones: they do not prick and are Nectarivore S. It are, with the Culex of under kind Lutzia the only mosquitos whose larvae are carnivorous, nourishing primarily larvae of various Culicidae . This kind of Culicidae was not announced yet in Europe.

Taxonomy

André Jean Baptiste Robineau-Desvoidy (1799-1857) recognized this type of mosquitos like a distinct group in 1827, under the name of Megarhinus . In 1948, Stone replaced this name for that current of Toxorhynchites Theobald, 1901. In 1952, Edwards divided the 52 known species of the time into 3 groups: the group Megarhinus , composed of 20 species néotropicales (current under kind Lynchiella ), the group Ankylorhynchus composed of 2 Brazilian species and the group Toxorhynchites , composed of 30 species populating the old world.

Barraud (1934) treated the fauna of India, Hopkins (1952) the larvae of the Ethiopian area and Belkin (1962) described the fauna of the peaceful south. Belkin, Heinemann and Page (1970) made an inventory of the fauna of Jamaica, Vargas (1953) inventoried the Toxorhynchites of North America and Lima et al. (1962) revised under kinds Ankylorhynchus and Lynchiella . Thus, at the year 1975, only 66 species were described and no revision on a world level was undertaken.

In 1985, Steffan and Evenhuis carried out the classification of the species of the sub-genus Toxorhynchites of the areas Australian, Eastern and palearctic Eastern, that is to say 36 species which they divided into 7 groups: Ater , Acaudatus , Christophi , Leicesteri , Minimus , Magnificus and Splendens . The group Acaudatus is supplemented and revised in 1986, gathering Asian species populating the ballot boxes of Nepenthes . A key of the group Splendens is established by Ribeiro in 1997.

The African species of under kind Toxorhynchites were divided into 2 groups: the group Brevipalpis which show black tufts sétales and the group Lutescens (8 species) which has tufts sétales oranges, yellows or reds (Service, 1990).

In 1991, Henrique Ribeiro withdrew the Lutescens group of under kind Toxorhynchites and recognized like under kind with whole, endemic share of the area afrotopicale, under kind Afrorhynchus . It also provides a key of identtification of the 4 pennies kinds. In 2004, Ribeiro distinguished among the Afrorhynchus the group Pauliani , joining together the 6 Malagasy species.

At the year 2004, the kind Toxorhynchites includes/understands 92 species or under species, distributed in 13 groups and under groups.

In 2005, Ribeiro distinguished 2 new groups for it under kind Afrorhynchus : the group Erhythurus and groups it Lutescens . Also, author of the description of 18 of enters, it established the same year a key of identification of the 31 species afrotropicales.

The kind Toxorhynchites thus includes/understands currently 95 Espèce S and under species described all over the world and divided into 4 pennies kinds:

  • Toxorhynchites (56 species) present on the old world
  • Afrorhynchus (20 species) only present in Africa néotropicale
  • Ankylorhynchus (4 species) and Lynchiella (16 species) present in the New World.

The Toxorhynchites the are culicidés primitive ones associated with the adaptive and geographical radiation of the Angiospermes which occurred with the Crétacé Supérieur and with the Tertiaire. Their presence on all the continents which formed the Gondwana indicates that the Toxorhynchites result from a joint base which split up at the time of the disintegration of the Pangée there are approximately 80 m.a. the once separated plates South American and African, the evolution of the néotropicaux sub-genera primarily occurred in the forests of Gondwanie Western. The stability of this area allowed the conservation of antiquated species like those of the sub-genus relic Ankylorhynchus , endemic of the basin of the Amazon. The most important radiation of the kind took place in Gondwanie Eastern, as the presence of species attests some belonging to under kinds Toxorhynchites and Afrorhynchus . This evolution was done from two principal centers, one located in the Eastern area (under-areas Indo-Faintness and Indochinese) and the other in the area afrotropicale. With 55% of the total of the kind, under kind Toxorhynchites is the only present in the areas Eastern, Australian and palearctic with groups of species close to the Brevipalpis group of Africa.

Morphology

These mosquitos of big size (8 to 13 mm) to the often metal colors are characterized by their long horn (proboscis) bent to the bottom and by the posterior edge of the wing indented close to the cubital vein.

They are also characterized by the presence of silk tufts along the last abdominal segments. The color of these silks is one of the characters to recognize the species.

The size of the antennas, so much in the male than in the female, is of approximately half of the size of the proboscis.

The palpi are of the same length than the proboscis in the male and bent upwards, and of the quarter this length in the female.

Biology

They have two characteristics: the females are not Hématophage S (the 2 sexes exclusively nourish nectar and other sweetened secretions) and their larvae nourish larvae of other mosquitos (polyphagia even cannibalism).

The adults have a diurnal activity for their search for food and their reproduction.

Food

Each larva devours on average 10 to 20 larvae larvae of culicidae per day. During the totality of its development, a Toxorhynchites can consume the equivalent of 5 ' 000 larvae of first stage (L1) or 300 larvae of stage 4 (L4) (Steffan & Evenhuis, 1981; Focks, 1982). However, it can be nourished of any type of moving preys or, failing this, organic refuses (Steffan & Evenhuis, 1981) or finally adopt a behavior cannibal.

Development

The duration of the larval development is from 10 to 90 days. The duration of the development nymphal is from 3 to 12 days.

A phenomenon of diapause was observed for L species, Tox. (Lynchiella) rutilus septentrionalis , occurring only at the L4 stage.

The female one by one lays in flight its eggs in the larval lodgings made of a hole of tree or other natural or artificial containers.

Distribution

The Toxorhynchites populate before all the tropical hot areas of the sphere, hardly exceeding the 40°N latitude. However, one meets rare species in moderate areas: for example, Toxorhynchites christophi is present in Russia of the East at a latitude of 54°N (Shamrai & Gutsevich, 1974) and Tox. rutilus septentrionalis in Canada by 45°N, in the state of New York, (Kokas J & Lee JH., 2004) like with the Massachusetts (Dennehy JJ. & Livdahl T., 1999).

In the same way species of under kind Lynchiella can meet in the north of the USA (New Jersey). No presence was still announced in Europe.

The 4 species currently described of under kind Ankylorhynchus all were discovered in South America (Argentine, Brésil, Bolivia)

The Lynchiella are confined in the New World, so much in South America (Argentine, Brésil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, French Guiana, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Venezuela) that in Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, El Salvador), with the the Caribbean (Puerto Rico, Haiti, Cuba, Trinity-and-Tobago) like in the south of the USA (Florida , Georgia, South Carolina).

Under kind Toxorhynchites , most abundant, is also most widespread. One meets his representatives in various areas of the sphere:

Lastly, under kind Afrorhynchus , rich person of 20 species is strictly limited to the area afrotropicale, including 6 endemic species in Madagascar (Angola, Burkina Faso, Cameroun, Madagascar, Nigeria, Uganda, Democratic republic of Congo, Sao Tome).

Habitat

The tropical forests and subtropical constitute the standard habitat of the Toxorynchitinae . The larvae develop in natural lodgings such as the holes of trees, the bamboos cut, the ballot boxes of Nepenthes , the sheets engainantes of plants such as Colocasia sp. , mushrooms ( Aquascypha will hydrophora ( Stereaceae )) like in artificial lodgings (container, pots of latex harvest in the plantations of Hévéa S…).

Vector role

Not being hematophagous, the Toxorhynchites cannot transmit disease-causing agents and thus do not have any role as vectors of diseases.

Use in biological fight

The Toxorhynchites were used in biological Lutte to reduce the populations of mosquitos nuisants. Toxorhynchites (Lynchiella) rutilus was thus used in Florida to reduce the populations of mosquitos. In 1950, Tox. (Toxorhynchites) brevipalpis was introduced from Africa into the islands of the Pacifique of which Hawaii (Bonnet & Hu, 1951), Tox. (Lynchiella) theobaldi (under the name of Tox. hypoptes Knab) since Panama in 1953 and Tox. (Toxorhynchites) amboinensis (under the name of Tox. splendens ) since Manila in 1953 (Steffan, 1975).

The introduced species with Hawaii were badly identified. The species introduced as being Tox. splendens proved to be in fact Tox. amboinensis .

These lâchers continued until 1957, starting from breedings. Only Tox. amboinenis and Tox. brevipalpis was established in the island. However, the control of the populations of Aedes albopictus was not reached.

Introductions also were carried out to the islands Samoa (( Tox. amboinensis , under the erroneous name of Tox. splendens , and Tox. brevipalpis ), Fiji ( Tox. inornatus and Tox. splendens ) where they were established.

In 1975, Toxorhynchites amboinensis is introduced of Tutuila (Samoas American) to Tahiti (French Polynésie) in order to control Aedes (Stegomyia) polynesiensis , vector of the Filariose de Bancroft and Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti vector of the Dengue. Tox. amboinensis is high in an extensive way with Tahiti and 50.000 adults out released regularly in Tahiti, a hundred in the island of Moorea, 300 with Maiao and 4.000 ceufs are transported to Mangareva, island principal of I' Archipel of Gambier. The species adapted well to the biotopes of the high islands of French Polynesia. The populations of the Aedes remain still sufficiently important so that the transmission of the filariose and the epidemics of dengue remain (River et al., 1979).

With the Japan, Tox. splendens , coming from Philippines (island Palawan) high then was slackened in 1984,1986 and 1987 on the small island of Minnajima (prefecture of Okinawa) in order to control Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus , species nuisantes prevalent of the island. Monthly lâchers of 250 females and 200 males from April at November would make it possible to control these two species (Miyagi et al., 1992).

List species

The distribution of the species is specified between bracket.

  • Group Acaudatus (Asia, lodging: ballot boxes of Nepenthes exclusively)

    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) acaudatus (Leicester, 1908) (Singapore)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) angustiplatus Evenhuis & Steffan 1986 (Malaysia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) coeruleus (Brug, 1934) (Indonesia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) indicus Evenhuis & Steffan, 1986 (Malaysia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) nepenthis (Dyar & Shannon) 1925 (Filipino)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) rajah Tsukamoto, 1989 (Borneo)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) ramalingami Evenhuis & Steffan, 1986 (Malaysia)

  • Group Ater (Asia, lodging: ballot boxes of Nepenthes )

    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) ater (Daniels, 1908) (Malaysia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) nigripes (Edwards), 1935 (Borneo)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) sumatranus (Brug), 1939 (Indonesia)

  • Group Splendens Steffan & Evenhuis, 1985

    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) amboinensis (Doleschall) 1857 (Indonesia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) inornatus inornatus (Walker), 1865 (New Guinea)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) inornatus albitarsis (Brug)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) macaensis Ribeiro, 1997 (China: Macao)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) nepenthicola Steffan & Evenhuis, 1982 (New Guinea-News-Guinea)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) pendleburyi (Edwards), 1930 (Borneo)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) speciosus (Skuse), 1889 (Australia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) splendens (Wiedemann, 1819) (Java, Filipino)

  • Group Magnificus Rosenberg & Evenhuis, 1985

    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) bengalensis Rosenberg & Evenhuis, 1985 (Bengladesh)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) funestus (Leicester), 1908 (Malaysia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) magnificus (Leicester), 1908 (Malaysia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) raris (Leicester), 1908 (Malaysia)

  • Group Christophi Steffan & Evenhuis, 1985

    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) auranticauda Lane 1992 (Indonesia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) aurifluus Edwards 1921 (Taiwan)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) bickleyi Thurman 1959 (Thailand)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) christophi changbaiensis Known and Wang, 1981 (China)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) christophi christophi (Portschinsky) 1884 (Russia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) edwardsi (Barraud), 1924 (India)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) manopi Thurman, 1959 (Thailand)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) quasiferox (Leicester), 1908 (Malaysia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) okinawensis Toma, Miyagi & Tanaka, 1990 (Japan)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) sunthorni Thurman, 1959 (Thailand)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) towadensis (Matsumura, 1916) (Japan)

  • Group Leicesteri Steffan & Evenhuis, 1985

    • Under group Leicesteri Steffan & Evenhuis, 1985
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) gravelyi (Edwards), 1921 (India)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) kempi (Edwards, 1921) (India)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) klossi (Edwards, 1921) (Malaysia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) leicesteri Theobald, 1904 (Malaysia)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) metallicus Leicester, 1904 (Malaysia)
    • Under group manicatus Steffan & Evenhuis, 1985
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) albipes (Edwards) 1922 (India)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) auripes (Edwards, 1935) (Borneo)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) manicatus manicatus (Edwards), 1921 (Taiwan)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) manicatus yaeyamae Masataka & Yutaka 1968 (Japan)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) yamadai (Ouchi)

  • Group Minimus Steffan & Evenhuis, 1985

    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) minimus (Theobald) 1905 (Sri Lanka)
    • Tox. (Toxorhynchites) gigantulus (Dyar & Shannon), 1925 (Filipino)

  • Under kind Ankilorhynchus Lutz 1904 (New World)
    • Tox. (Ankylorhynchus) catharinensis (Da Costa Lima, Guitton & Ferreira), 1962 (Brazil)
    • Tox. (Ankilothynchus) hexacis (Martini, 1931) (Bolivia)
    • Tox. (Ankilothynchus) purpureus (Theobald, 1901) (Brazil: Amazonia)
    • Tox. (Ankylorhynchus) trichopygus (Wiedemann, 1828) (Brazil)

  • Under kind Lynchiella Lahille 1904 (New World)
    • Tox. (lynchiella) bambusicola (Lutz and Neiva, 1913) (Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Surinam, Venezuela)
    • Tox. (lynchiella) cavalierii Garcia & Casal, 1967 (Argentinian)
    • Tox. (lynchiella) gerbergi Belkin, 1977 (Lesser Antilles: Grenade)
    • Tox. (lynchiella) grandiosus (Williston, 1900) (Mexico)
    • Tox. (lynchiella) guadeloupensis (Dyar and Knab, 1906) (Argentinian, Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia Guadeloupe, Lesser Antilles, Surinam, Trinidad, Venezuela)
    • Tox. (lynchiella) haemorrhoidalis (Fabricius, 1787) (French Guiana)
    • Tox. (lynchiella) mariae (Bourroul, 1904) (Brazil)
    • Tox. (lynchiella) moctezuma (Dyar & Knab, 1906) (Costa Rica)
    • Tox. (lynchiella) portoricensis (Roeder, 1885) (Puerto Rico, Dominique)
    • Tox. (Lynchiella) pusillus (Lima, 1931) (Brazil)
    • Tox. (Lynchiella) rizzoi (De Palma and Galvo, 1969) (Brazil)
    • Tox. (Lynchiella) rutilus rutilus (Coquillett, 1896) (the United States: Florida, Nicaragua)
    • Tox. (Lynchiella) rutilus septentrionalis Lawson and Al, 1994, (the United States: Rhode Island)
    • Tox. (Lynchiella) solstitialis (Lutz, 1904) (Brazil)
    • Tox. (Lynchiella) theobaldi (Dyar and Knab, 1906) (Colombia)
    • Tox. (Lynchiella) violaceus (Wiedemann, 1821) (Brazil)

References

Taxonomy: Description or redescription of species

Under kind Lynchiella
  • Augier L., Dantur Juri M.J., Molina G. (2003). Redescripción of the larva there the pupa of Toxorhynchites ( Lynchiella ) guadeloupensis ( Diptera : Culicidae ). Rev. Entomol plowshare. Money. 62 (1-2). Doc. pdf
  • Belkin, J. NR. (1977). Toxorhynchites ( Lyn .) gerbergi , has new species from the Southern Lesser the Antilles. Mosquito Systematics. 9 (3): 329-332.
  • Da Costa Lima A.M., Guitton NR., Ferreira O. (1962). Comentarios relativos ace especies da tribo Toxorhynchitini (Megarhinini) COM descriçao of uma especie nova of Lynchiella (Diptera Culicidae ). Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, 60 (2): 225-252.
  • Steffan W.A. & Evenhuis NR. L. (1980). Description off the pupa off Toxorhynchites (Lynchiella) rutilus septentrionalis (Diptera: Culicidae ). Mosquito Systematics vol. 12 (2): 175-178.
Under kind Afrorhynchus
  • Ribeiro H. (1991). Research one the mosquito subfamily Toxorhynchitinae (Diptera: Culicidae ). II - Description off the Afrotropical subgenus Afrorhynchus subgen. Nov. Mosquito Systematics, 23 (3): 195-198.
  • Ribeiro H. (2004). The Toxorhynchites Theobald of Madagascar (Diptera: Culicidae ) Year. Plowshare entomol. 40 (3-4): 243-257. Doc. pdf
Under kind Toxorhynchites of the Eastern area
  • Danilov, V. NR. 1987. One Mosquitoes off the genus Toxorhynchites off the Soviet Union and closely related species in Eastern and Southeastern Asia ( Culicidae ). Parazitologija. 21:151 - 155.
  • Evenhuis NR. L. & Steffan W.A. (1986). Classification off the subgenus Toxorhynchites (Diptera: Culicidae ) II. Revision off the Toxorhynchites acaudatus group. J. Med. Entomol. Vol. 23, No 5:538 - 574. Doc. Pdf.
  • Lane J. (1992). Toxorhynchites auranticauda sp.n., has new Indonesian mosquito and potential biocontrol agent. Medical and Veterinary Entomology (1992) 6,301-305.
  • Bond J.C. (1965). Mosquitoes off Taiwan: genus Toxorhynchites Theobald. J. Med. Ent. Vol. 2, No 1:1 - 16
  • Masataka S. & Yutaka A. (1968). Toxorhynchites species from Ishigaki-Jima island, the Ryukyus (Diptera: Culicidae ). Bulletin off the Japan Entomological Academy. 4 (4): 13-17.
  • Ribeiro H. (1997). New species off Toxorhynchites (Diptera: Culicidae ) from Macau (Clouded). J Am Mosq Assoc Control. 13 (3): 213-7.
  • Rosenberg R. & Evenhuis NR. L. (1985). With new species off Toxorhynchites from Bangladesh. Mosquito Systematics vol. 17 (1): 36-43.
  • Steffan W.A. & Evenhuis NR. L. (1985). Classification off the subgenus Toxorhynchites (Diptera: Culicidae ). I. Australasian, eastern Palearctic, and Eastern species-groups. J. Med. Entomol. 22: 421-446. Long Doc. pdf
  • Known and Wang Cai. 1981. With new species off the genus Toxorhynchites Theobald (Diptera: Culicidae ). Acta Entomologica Sinica. 24: 327-331.
Under kind Toxorhynchites of the area afrotropicale
  • Ribeiro H. (1991). Research one the mosquito subfamily Toxorhynchitinae (Diptera: Culicidae ). I - The afrotropical group Brevipalpis (adults). Arquivos C museu Scrap-metal, Nova series, vol. 2 (3), 31-62.
  • Ribeiro H. (1992). Research one the mosquito subfamily Toxorhynchitinae (Diptera: Culicidae ). III - Description off two new species from Angola. Bolm Plowshare Port. Entomol. (SPEN) Supl n°3 (Congr Ibér. Entomol., Lisboa): 187-196.
  • Ribeiro H. (1993). One the terrestrial and riverine fauna off the Democratic republic off Sao Tome and Principle. VII - Description off Toxorhynchites capelai sp. Nov. (Diptera, Culicidae ). Garcia de Orta, Sér. Zool. Lisboa 19: 135-138.
  • Ribeiro H., (2005). Three new species and one new subspecies off Toxorhynchites (Diptera: Culicidae ) off the afrotropical area. J Med Entomol. 42 (3): 224-32.
  • Ribeiro H. (2005). Systematics and identification off Afrotropical Toxorhynchitinae (Diptera: Culicidae ). J. Med. Entomol. 42 (6): 953-8.
  • Service Mr. W. (1990). Handbook to the Afrotropical toxorhynchitine and culicine mosquitoes, excepting Aedes and Culex . British Museum (Natural History). ISBN 0-565-01125-1.

Distribution

  • Steffan W.A. (1968). Mosquitoes off the Papuan subregion (Diptera: Culicidae ) Toxorhynchites (Toxorhynchites) amboinensis (Doleschall). J Med Entomol. 1; 5 (3): 310-3.
  • Kokas J & Lee JH., (2004). Toxorhynchites rutilus septentrionalis : new occurrences in upstate New York. J Am Mosq Assoc Control. 20 (2): 199-200.
  • Dennehy JJ. & Livdahl T., (1999) First record off Toxorhynchites rutilus (Diptera: Culicidae ) in Massachusetts. J Am Mosq Assoc Control. 15 (3): 423-4.

Biology

  • Greeney H.F. (2004). Fallen flower bracts off the stilt-root palm Iriartea deltoidea (Palmae: Iriarteeae) ace phytotelmata habitats in has lowland Ecuadorian rainforest. Public Milwaukee Museum Contributions in Biology and Geology Paul Mayer, Editor. ISBN 0-89326-214-5
  • Hutchings R.S. (1994). Palm bract breeding sites and to their exploitation by Toxorhynchites ( Lynchiella ) haemorrhoidalis haemorrhoidalis (Diptera: Culicidae ) in year upland forest off the central Amazon. J Med Entomol. 31 (2): 186-91.
  • Horio Mr., Tsukamoto Mr., Jayasekera NR, Kamimura K. (1989). Laboratory colonization and bionomics off Toxorhynchites minimus (Diptera: Culicidae ) from Sri Lanka. J. Sanit. Zool. Vol. 40 Suppl. p. 11-23.

Biological fight

  • Bonnet, D.D. & Hu, S.M.K. (1951). The introduction off Toxorhynchites brevipalpis into the Territory off Hawaii. Proceedings off the Hawaiian Entomological Society 14: 237-242.
  • River F., Pichon G., Duval R., Toudic A. (1979). Introduction of Toxorhynchites (Toxorhynchites) amboinensis (Doleschall, 1857) ( Diptera Culicidae ) in French Polynesia. Cah. O.R.ST.O.M., ser. EM. med. and farasitol., vol. XVII, n° 4: 225-234.
  • Miyagi I., Divided into volumes T., Mogis Mr. (1992). Biological control off container-breeding mosquitoes, Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus , in has Japanese island by release off Toxorhynchites splendens adults. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 6,290-300.
  • Steffan W.A. (1975). Systematics and biological control potential off Toxorhynchites (Diptera: Culicidae ). Mosquito Systematics 7: 59-67.

Bibliographical review

  • Manning DLL, Evenhuis NL, Steffan WA. (1982). Year bibliography off Toxorhynchites (Diptera: Culicidae ): supplement I.J Med Entomol.19 (4): 429-86.
  • Steffan W.A., Evenhuis N.L., Manning D.L. (1980) Year bibliography off Toxorhynchites (Diptera: Culicidae ). J Med Entomol Suppl. 2 (3): 1-140.

External references

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