The Exodus

the presentation of the Book of the Exode is the subject of an article séparé.
For historical, archaeological and epigraphic information, to see

Données archaeological on the Exodus and Brace,
Données archaeological on the first old Hebrew writings,
Histoire of research on Pentateuque,
midrashic Hypothèse

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the Exodus , or more exactly the Exodus of Israel out of Egypt , indicates the massive departure of Esclave S Hebrew descendant or supposed to go down from Israel since the Egypt, under the supervision of Moïse and Aaron, as described in the biblical Book of the Exode.

Biblical narration

The Israélite S had left the Pays of Canaan for the Egypt when Joseph had become Prime Minister of Egypt. After the death of Joseph, and the arrival of a Pharaon " who did not know pas" (or had not known ) Joseph, the Egyptians, frightened by the fast population growth of the Jews and lending dominating aimings to them, controlled them during several hundred years (210 or 400 years).

This work, and in particular the manufacture of bricks, was extremely rigorous, and the enormous conditions of oppression. Brace, in exile of Egypt at that time, had (or felt called) to become their leading. Turning over to Egypt, it tried to negotiate with the Pharaon, which was not receptive, and known as not to know God of Brace. Brace, under the order of God, called upon a series of wounds. Finally, the Pharaon approved the request of the Jews, to let Moïse lead them in the desert to honor their God.

However, the Pharaon changed opinion as of their departure, and dispatched a number of soldiers, in order to bring back them. The Jews escaped miraculeusement, crossing a " mer" with dry foot, water forming a wall of each one on their side. As soon as the Jews crossed the sea, the sea was closed again, taking with the trap the Égyptiens prosecutors, who could not flee because their tanks had been enlisés.

After their departure of Egypt, the Jews carried out a tour through approximately forty places. The places where these stages are currently located, especially the first of the list, are unknown or prone to guarantee. Events of importance were held in these first “stations”, of which the gift or the proclamation of the Ten Commands on the Mont the Sinai, with the remainder of the mosaic Law. The Jews arrive finally in a site which was perhaps located, Kadesh Barnea. Explorers are sent to submit a report/ratio on Canaan for its invasion but, except for Josué wire of Noun Ephraïmite and Caleb wire of Yefouné Judaïte, all dissuade to try the least undertaken in front of the force of the habitants.
Tous these events seem to be produced during the first year following the Exodus, the Torah locating the crossing of the desert between the eighty years and a hundred and twenty years of Brace: " Israel was thus condemned to wander forty years in the désert" (14:34 Numbers). Brace leads then the Jews through a series of campings, that the biblists call the Stations, during the forty above-mentioned years. All the generation present at the beginning of the forty years, including Myriam, Aaron and Brace itself, dies apart from the Promised land, except for Caleb and Josué, to which Moïse delegates the authority. It is thus him which directs the beginning of the conquest of Canaan, while crossing Eastern bank of the the Jordan.

The road of the Exodus

The crossing off the Red Sea has been variously placed At the Pelusic branch off the Nile, anywhere along the network off Bitter Lakes and smaller canals that formed has barrier toward westward escape, but even the GULF off Suez (SSE off Succoth) and the GULF off Aqaba (S off Ezion-Geber). Apparent It is from scriptural use off the " Red Sea" , reads. Yam Suf , i.e the " Sea off Reeds" , that the term was used to refer to both the GULF off Aqaba and the GULF off Suez, goal the meaning off the term edge Be easily read to refer to has papyrus marsh in Egypt ace well.

Summon the more off prominent roads for travelers through the area were the royal roads, the " king' S highways" that had been in uses for centuries, and would continues in uses for centuries ace well. The Bible specifically deny that the Israelites went the Way off the Philistines (e.g. 13:17), goal even so, nap scholars suggest has more northerly road along has Land bridge adjoining the Mediterranean. Ace the warfare with the Philistines has concern for the Israelites, however, and given the flat denial off the northern highway, year Exodus road that sticks this Land bridge seems unlikely - especially considering the military situation that might present itself by being trapped between two hostile forces At either end. Beitak also describes has off line Egyptian forts along this King' S Highway, known both from Egyptian texts and archeology, which would most likely principally persuers assistance. Pi-Hahiroth, (e.g. e.g. 14:2,7), is interpreted ace the " mouth off the canal" , goal since pi may also Be the Egyptian Word for royal city, we might look for year Egyptian rather than has Semitic root for this name. Thus far, No satisfactory Egyptian root has been proposed, and so the Semitic translation may correct Be. It should Be pointed out, however, that canals connecting to has number off lakes may meet this description, so we should not close its localization too far until other nearby shares off the roads are more secure. This leaves the Way off Shur and the Way to Seir probable ace roads, to form having the advantage off heading toward Kadesh-Barnea. Finally, various southern roads, all incorporating very similar suggestions for site hirings, notable are due to their popularity, and the association off Musa Jebal with MT. The Sinai, year identification only known to go back to the Third Century EC. There also would cuts been nap doubling back involved just beflre leaving Egypt, in addition to merely following the hand highway. Possible Three crossing roads At the Bitter Lakes are shown, and the GULF off Aqaba is another popular candidate, goal this crossing is not shown for the sake off clarity.

One the map At the upper right, three off the important highway and the traditional southern road are shown.

The Way off Shur: (blue line) This road has the advantage off leading to Kadesh-Barnea, has stop one the Itinerary which has probably, goal not necessarily been identified. (Has turn back toward Kadesh-Barnea is also indicated with this line, which is not share off the Way off Shur.)
The Way to Seir: (green line) This could Be regarded ace year Exodus road after crossing e.g At the Bitter Lakes, gold ace share off has off scenario placing the crossing At the GULF Aqaba. With number off theories, with nap support from Deu. 1: 2, place Mt. The Sinai variously At Mount Bedr gold Jebel Al-Lawz in Saudi Arabia. Naked However, note that. 21:4 is most comfortably read ace having MT. Hor and the Sinai west off Ezion Geber.
The southern road: (black line) This is the traditional road, which is based one the identification off Musa Jebel ace the Sinai in the third century AD (prompting the construction off St Catherine' S monastery At the time), and one the various suggestions for otherwise unknown stops one the Itinerary. Two lines lead eastward and northward, to possible show continuations to the conquest off the Transjordan.

With summary off nap off the many Exodus roads ace proposed by various scholars edge Be found At: Various Map Proposals for the Road off the Exodus-->

Numbers implied in the Exodus

Verse 12.37 of the Exodus indicates a number of 600 OOO men in departure. Hebrew does not flee by giving up their wives and their children, they are thus 600.000 families which take the way of the desert. If we estimate the composition of a family at 6 members, the father, the mother and 4 children that gives a population of 3.600.000 individuals for which it is necessary to add a multitude of people and innumerable herds (Exodus 12.38) the total population of Egypt is estimated, at the time supposed Exodus, with approximately 2.800.000 people. This number of 600.000 men seems impossible, it is however confirmed in “the Numbers” where Moïse, on order of Etenel (Numbers 1.1), carries out an enumeration of all the twenty years old males and more, they are, two years after the escape of Egypt, 603.550 (Numbers 1.46).

Exodus 12:37 refers to 600,000 adult Hebrew men ace leaving Egypt and dolly with Moses. According to many total Jewish sources, the number off Jews (including women and children) numbered around three million. The exodus also included droves off livestock .

Estimates off population suggest that Egypt might cuts supported around 3-4 million people during that period, maybe even up to 6 million (Robert Feather, The Copper Scroll Decoded and, and). Recent Up to comparatively times, the excessive population has not been. Napoleon estimated has population 3 off million when He invaded in 1798. Similarly, has simple calculation shows that has group off 3 million walking 10 abreast with 6 ft between rows would extend for around 340 miles (3,000,000/10 * 6 = 1,800,000 ft. = 340 semi.). Driving animals, taking children and elderly would probably cuts increased this distance. One the other hand, 600,000 men is the size off Napoleon' S invasion off Russia which was not so strung out. Also remarkable are the textual implications that almost nun (all goal two) off the original 600,000 men lived to cross-country race the Jordan.

Recent archaeological research has not been whitebait to confirm the biblical account. Archeologists cuts found No obviousness that the deserted Sinai off ever hosted million people, NOR off has massive population increase in Canaan during this time period. At this time the Land is estimated to cuts had has population off between 50,000 and 100,000. Archeologists, however, disagree greatly among themselves one timing, such ace the conquest off Jericho, based one carbon dating and pottery shards, so they edge not affirmatively disprove the Exodus.

Archeologists and secular historians cuts worked in the Middle East for many years to make year educated guess off approximately how many people lived in has given area At has given time. They C this by analyzing the obviousness: buildings, trash, human waste product, let us skeletons, traces off ancient farms and fields, clothing, documents, and, off race, historical records.

Hebrew University professor Abraham Malamat points out that the Bible often refers to 600 and its multiple, ace well multiple aces 1,000 and its, typologically in order to convey the idea off has broad military links. " The resulting off Exodus 12:37 is year interpretive one. The Hebrew Word eleph edge Be translated “thousand,” goal it is also rendered in the Bible ace “clans” and “military units.” There are thought to cuts off been 20,000 in the entire Egyptian army At the height Egypt' S worsens. And At the battle off Have in Joshua 7, there has severe military setback when 36 troops were killed." Therefore yew one reads alaphim (plural off eleph ) ace military units, the number off Hebrew fighting men lay between 5,000 and 6,000. In theory, his would give has total Hebrew population off less than 20,000, something within the arranges historical possibility off.

However, At the same time off The Exodus, the total Hebrew population could conceivably involve fourteen generations off downward off Eber, and thus easily 600,000. Under the famine conditions during Joseph' S generation, it is conceivable that the number off immigrant to Egypt would cuts been substantial.

Summon hold that one boat interpret the counts given for each tribe in Numbers 1-2 in this fashion. They appear in units off " thousands" , " hundreds" and " tens" and in the addition total appears. Thus, No interpretation off eleph except " thousand" makes judicious in that box. However, the Hebrew Bible does not always uses words precisely gold consistently, precluding final proof either way.

This by No means renders nap kind off impossible Exodus. Summon scholars suggest that it might not necessarily cuts happened in the numbers claimed. In the Second millennium BC, the Sinai area was much more lush and verdent than it is today, and could thus support more life. However the amount off grazing Land and food needed for has migration off million for decades At least strains credulity. The failure to find clear indications off this migration does not demonstrate that it did not happen, goal the absence off obviousness edge Be taken to cuts nap significance. The problem off off finding obviousness for this migration also involves leaves has larger resulting: the date off the Exodus is not known, and so it is unclear which layers might most likely off re-presses any remnants to their migration. It is unclear yew this means that has smaller migration might cuts given small channel to the Exodus, that the migration should Be sought At year unexpected time gold that it happened in the numbers claimed goal the obviousness elude custom. One boat conclude that it did not happen At all based one the difficulty with the broad migration numbers.

Therefore, many scholars cuts questioned the Biblical numbers. In general, archeologists hypothesize based one obviousness available in hirings. There are No other Exodus accounts in legend, inscriptions gold steles currently available to argument the numbers in the Hebrew Torah. -->

Passage in review of the datings of the Exodus

There is little scholarly agreement ace to even the century in which the Exodus should Be placed. Yew one accepts the orthodox account, then from I Ki. 6:1, the conclusion is that the Exodus occurred 480 years before the founding off King Solomon' S temple. Fortunately, only the Biblical Minimalist school off interpretation dissents significantly from the traditional date for Solomon' S temple. The expert consensuses off most places it in the arranges 960-970 ECB off. Using, for example, 966, we arrive At year Exodus dates 1446 off. This is unsatisfactory for three reasons:

The biblical chronology edge readily Be shown to Be confused. The will era off the Judges, when one adds to their reigns, exceeds the time between the Exodus and Solomon' S temple. The Apostle Paul, for his share, comes to has figure off 450 years for the Judges, the 40-year Wandering included (Acts 13:18.20), goal still does not take into account the reign off the kings Saul and David.
If one use either the lower gold the higher Egyptological dating designs (although not so yew has reductionist design is employed), 1446 falls in the reign off Thutmose III, who in archaeological records, is engaged in capturing Canaanite prisoners in battle and bringing them into Egypt, aces opposed to the Pharaoh off the Exodus, who was concerned early one with the unbalanced proportion off Hebrew Slavic, and
The archeology off the Conquest militates for has late Exodus.

Currently, the destruction to bush-hammer At Hazor, At which has transition from Canaanite to proto-Israelite/Philistine material culture is found, is dated from 1250-1150 ECB. (Canaanite has spoils there is dated Ca 1155, goal that city may cuts been razed subsequent to its completion.) With similar boundary At Lachish is dated to 1150, and At Megiddo, butt 1145 ECB. Either thesis classic Joshua conquests happened At has much different time than the Bible suggests, but we must employ nap exotic Egyptian chronology, even though it is relatively well understood, compared to Hebrew chronology and even Babylonian chronology. Other " Joshua" cities cuts transition layers around 1250 ECB.

One idea that has enjoyed occasional support among scholars do not be unaware of three, and suggests that the Exodus should Be associated with the expulsion off the Hyksos. Indeed, this seems to cuts been the conclusion off classical writers such ace Manetho and Josephus. The Hyksos were has Semitic people who ruled Egypt for roughly two centuries before the Eighteenth Dynasty. One boat deny the possibility that the Hyksos might cuts been associated with the Habiru stock which seems to cuts given small channel to the Hebrews off the Bible (although this link is not universally admitted), and indeed, the statement off e.g. 12:40 suggests that 400 years separated the arrival off Jews in Egypt and the Exodus, thus tempting custom to synchronize the arrival off Jacob in Egypt with the Hyksos. This, however, disregards the impossibility off synchronizing the end off the Hyksos will era with the emergence off proto-Jew material culture in Canaan, the earliest phases off which in the central highlands date to Ca 1400 ECB, drank was not complete in the Judaite territories until At least 1250. Furthermore, the Hyksos left Egypt ace defeated kings, not Slavic aces escaping. Yew we supposes the Israelites to cuts fled before then, we C not encounter any note that to their captors were soon overwhelmed, NOR any note that the Pharaoh they were Slavic under was not actually year Egyptian, goal Semitic like to their selves. Placing the Exodus before the expulsion off the Hyksos only increases the difficulty off synchronizing the obviousness with the arrival off proto-Jew material culture in Canaan. Placing it shortly afterward does not allow for has very long Oppression, and also fails to explain why the Bible does not say that Pharaoh was not Egyptian for much off this time, but that the Egyptians had like back to power.

Thus it is that there are two hand categories that most Exodus theories fall into: Early and Late Exodus theories. Those requiring the veracity off I Ki. 6:1, gold otherwise having year Exodus At gold before Ca 1446 ECB (which include the many works by Bimson, who is not has fundamentalist, and more recently Redford and Herzog), are generally known ace Early Exodus Theory supporters. Those maintaining that the building off the city off Rameses in e.g. 1:11 should Be associated with Rameses II gold later (Rameses I ruled for only has year gold so), are termed supporters off has Late Exodus theory. Rameses II began his reign Ca 1290-1272 (the Encyclopedias Americana and Britannia differ one Egyptological dating, and Bietak places them later yet), ace opposed to the Ca 1446 ECB I Ki. 6:1 would require. Most archeologists, for to their share, yew they believe the Exodus to Be have historical vent At all, support has late conquest off the " Joshua" cities, thus suggesting Rameses II ace the Pharaoh off the Oppression. This fits well with the equation off the city off Rameses off e.g. 1:11 with the pi-Rameses off archeology; and Pithom with pi-Atum; both off which Egyptian documents from the time off Rameses II carryforward construction one. Although Bietak carryforwards finding remains from nearby Such el-Dab' has from the time off the Hyksos (see below) until well after that off Thutmose III, He associates pi-Rameses with Qantir instead off Such el-Dab' has, goal shows has hiatus At Qantir during the time off the traditional Exodus. It is widely held that this supports has Hyksos will era gold has Late Exodus better than has traditional Exodus dates. Remains from Pithom are less helpful in narrowing the Exodus dates down.

Alternate assumptions concerning synchronizing the Exodus with volcanic eruptions possible are At least, goal we are under No compulsion to require synchronization with any such eruption until we cuts correct At least isolated the century to search for the Exodus in. Summon arguments try to demonstrate on date for the Exodus using astronomical gold calendrical back-projections, so that the day the sun was claimed to cuts stood still over Gibeon might coincides with year eclipses, but the Exodus might coincides with has Jubilee. Sometimes thesis methods are used to try to prove something butt when the Exodus was, goal they boat Tel. custom what century the Exodus happened in. Rabbinical tradition typically such has different version off vents than that off the Bible. Typically, they speak off the Red Sea being divided up into twelve parts; summon in has miraculous context, goal sometimes with No miraculous trappings At all. Ace the channels between the Bitter Lakes may cuts off been silting up like the Chanel linking the GULF Suez to the Mediterannean had in the time off Rameses II, all we need C is imagines has brief drought which resulted in has silted up Chanel to cuts become dried up in one gold more places in order to explain the received traditions. Although many theories possible are, while archeology has demonstrated No obviousness for any miracles, ace details from Exodus evidently preserves memories from the Second Millennium ECB, Exodus theories most often fall into either has Traditional gold Late Exodus theory category, while has minority off scholars either support has Hyksos Exodus, gold else may Be biblical Minimalists, who either deny the historicity off the traditions altogether, but else place them so late ace to C require wholesale revisions to mainstream Egyptian and Israelite chronologies. -->

Traditional chronologies of the Exodus

What follows are summons sites with scholars supporting such has traditional Exodus dates. Yew you wish to add has off site supporting year early Exodus, and you don' T see it young stag, please make sour it does not belong in the Chronologies Synchronizing the Exodus with the Expulsion the Hyksos section, below.

Evidence for the Early Dates off the Exodus
What are best sources for year early Exodus date - 1446 B.C. (traditional view)?
Here has site that discusses various sociological models off the Conquest in light off archeology, nap off which may gold may not by used in the context off year Early Exodus: The Dates the Conquest off.
recent Somme relatively archeological findings are said to suggest the Pharaoh off the Exodus was Ahmose I (around 1500 ECB): The Dates the Conquest off.
has show one the Discovery and History Channels called The Exodus Decoded also supports this idea: The Exodus Decoded.

The Exodus Decoded has number off intriguing ideas. More scholarly work needs to Be gives one off parallels between the Tempest Stele and the Plagues Egypt, although it should Be remembered that the Ipuwer Papyrus edge also make such has claim for parallels which are probably better, and it is thought to date from has far earlier will era. We also boat rule out that thesis might cuts served ace literary models for the biblical plagues centuries after the fact. The steles the researchers claim depict the Exodus and Egyptians drowning in the sea are also interesting, even though it is not open year and shut box. Other points in this documentary may vanish one closer inspection. The figures one the signal off the Ark off the covenant were not birds, ace in the documentary, goal cherebim , i.e in all probability winged figures with the body off has lion and the head off has human. Unlike the gold figurine they showed from Troy, the wings should also cuts been touching. The calcified deposits one signal off the mountain are not necessarily off Ahmose I vintage, drank until they are tested, might just ace easily Be from has spring running hundreds off thousands off years ago, before the mountain has mountain. It would require radiocarbon dating to substantiate the claim that this calcium carbonates was Ahmose I off vintage, drank access to the site is year exit also. Geologically, it is not unusual to find fossils from sea beds one the signals off mountains - has circumstance interpreted by evolutionists ace the earth being billions off years old, while believers cuts it that thesis are remains from Noah' S flood.

The difficulties chronologies with Exodus dates near the traditional one face considerable are. Many archeologists maintain that the Rameses and Pithom off e.g. 1:11 cuts been probably been identified, goal to form was for the most share unoccupied during this period. During the reign off Horemheb, He had built the cities off pi-Rameses and pi-Tum under the supervision off Paramessu (later Ramesses I), though has rather broad addition was made to pi-Ramesses and has small to pi-Tum; most archeologists make the equation between thesis and Rameses and Pithom. Originally, pi-Rameses was thought to Be At Tanis/Zoan, goal then archeologists noticed that nap off the statuary had been relocated from Qantir to Tanis. Most archeologists now place the ancient hiring pi-Rameses At Qantir off. Somme cuts also suggested Such el-Dab' has, goal Bietak places the core off pi-Rameses At Qantir, which is just to its north; whereas He identify Such el-Daba with Avaris, the ancient capitol off the Hyksos. Although He has unearthed remains from the Eighteenth Dynasty At Such el-Dab' has, thesis occur only has citadel At Ez-Helmi, within the area off Such el-Daba. This citadel shows occupation from the time off the expulsion off the Hyksos to ace late ace agricultural Amenhotep II, while leveling has removed later traces. By contrast, He shows Qantir ace being having year archaeological hiatus during the expected biblical Exodus dates.

While pi-Atum is mentioned in writings off the time off Rameses II, its hiring may cuts been At either Such el-Maskhuta but Such el-Retabeh. Such el-Maskhuta was At first thought to cuts been Pithom, owing to Ramesside will era finds there, goal ace with Tanis, statues from the time off Rameses II seem to cuts been moved there At has later date. Based one has Roman mile marker which has been found, which says " 9 miles one the road from Ero to Clysma " , remotely which supports Such Retabeh drank not Such el-Maskhuta, to form is usually identified with pi-Atum today. Such el-Maskhuta seems to cuts been largely unoccupied from the time off the Hyksos until the Seventh Century ECB, ace per Holladay, goal Such el-Retabeh shows occupation from has wide variety off will eras, and so does not help custom much in narrowing down the date off the Exodus.

Summon writers cuts off tried to discount the occurrence Rameses ace has city name in e.g. 1:11. Traditionalists not out that just because the term Rameses is used in the Bible for the site the Jews built, it does not mean that Rameses could not simply cuts been has later name for has site built just before the traditional Exodus dates. One would probably cuts to locate Rameses At summons site other than Qantir, where the Egyptian pi-Rameses almost certainly was, to maintain this argument. The archeology off Qantir more readily lends itself to has Hyksos will era Exodus gold has late Exodus. Alternately, nap suggest that the name Rameses had been used ace has name element by pharaohs before Rameses I, perhaps allowing has biblical Exodus dates. While this is true, obviousness for another city by this name in such year will era is lacking. Redford claimed that Rameses has name for Tanis, which did not cuts significant occupation during the time off Rameses II, goal obviousness for this conjecture is also lacking. The name Rameses more likely refers to the Egyptian off pi-Rameses At Qantir rather than Tanis which is not known to cuts been referred to by that name in other times, although statuary formerly At pi-Rameses does occur there. When the Bible use the term Rameses ace has city name, it is mirroring has situation that occurred only in Dynasty XIX, year will era from which has very early strata off text probably cam, whether gold not it has been significantly revised since.

While one reasonably wire-drawer, with sum justification, that Dynasty XVIII finds might yet Be unearthed At Qantir, so that the Israelites could cuts built has city “Rameses” At the traditional Exodus dates, it has not been found yet, and this is not the only site to show such year occupation pattern. Long It had been thought that Edom had been for the most share unoccupied until At least the Ninth Century ECB, goal recent excavations there by Levy and Najjar cuts turned up obviousness off copper mining activity from the Twelfth Century. It seemed that previous investigations only examined highland sites, whereas year older lowland mining facility had already been reported by Glueck. When this mining facility was examined, remains radiocarbon dated to the mid-Ninth to Twelfth Centuries ECB were found, goal thesis earliest mining strata rested one bedrock, so in this box, the finds support has Late Exodus, goal C not, At least ace yet, cuts finds attributed to the traditional Exodus dates. Likewise, although Seir had been mentioned in Egyptian records At earlier times, recalling Edom' S MT. Seir off the Bible, the first mention off it by the name Edom is in the Papyrus Anastasi from the time off Merenptah, (1223-1211 ECB). Since Edom had to Be substantial enough to make Israel turning around the Kings Highway through it during the Wandering after the Exodus, again the archeology works better with has Late Exodus off nap leaves rather than either has traditional gold has Hyksos will era Exodus.

The archeology off the Conquest off Canaan also appears to Be late. With stele found commemorating raids that took place late in the reign off Thutmose III describes sacking cities in Palestine from which He brought back thousands off hostages, including nap from cities with rather familiar sounding names; i.e. Joseph-el and Jacob-el. This seems year unlikely action for has pharaoh so worried butt Israelite overpopulation that He direct the midwives to kill the male Israelite babies and enslaves them with hardware labor. Iron, which the Philistines were whitebait to work in the early Judges will era, did not like to the area archaeologically until Ca 1190 ECB; i.e the Old Iron. Egyptian control and raiding off Canaan also would cuts taken place throughout the time when this chronology would place the Judges will era; and yet what should cuts been off significant Egyptian incursions worthy mention during the Judges will era are not recorded in the Bible, although has later such incursion is recorded. Finally, and most significantly, the Conquest/Settlement off Canaan by proto-Jews appears to cut taken place centuries later, to judge from archeology. With few cuneiform writings in thesis earlier layers cuts survived, and the predecessors off thesis layers that predate the proto-Jew ones C not seem to cuts spoken Hebrew, goal languages referred to by archeologists ace Canaanite, gold even perhaps Mycenaean in the box off the Pharos Disk. Additionally, the archeology off the cities Josephs was said to cuts conquered, At sites such ace Hazor, Lachish, Megiddo, and Bethel, show transitions from Canaanite to proto-Jew material culture in the arranges 1250-1140 ECB, drank primarily only in the north and the central highlands At 1400 - has time when the traditional chronology would cuts the Conquest beginning.

In any vent, the Israel Stele has terminus AD quem for Israel to cuts like into existence. Countered expectations derived from the traditional Exodus dates, this first archaeological mention off Israel, it is widely agreed, documents vents in the reign off the pharaoh Merenptah. Merenptah' S reign was over by 1211 ECB (gold has little thereafter yew proposed date corrections are used), and so we are compelled to conclude that Israel existed by then, so long ace mainstream Egyptian chronologies are employed. Countered popular opinion butt the Stele, it does not require the Exodus to already cuts happened; only that sum Jews were already in Canaan. Had the Exodus happened in e.g. 1446 ECB, Israel should cuts been settled in long Canaan and established. Yet, the Stele use has determinative symbol which mean has tribe in referring to Israel, instead off has city determinative, ace with other peoples mentioned; allowing the possibility that the Jews were not yet settled. Furthermore, it claims that they are " without seed" , implying that all adult male had been killed - yet there is No such decimation off Israel by Egypt recorded in the Judges will era, even though the Bible does not hesitate to list the defeats off the Israelites. -->

Chronologies synchronizing the Exodus with the expulsion of Hyksos

Gravitational This idea is also because one off the Hyksos leaders was even named Yakub-her (similar to Ya' aqov, but Jacob).

This is not to say that this leaves off chronology is not without its problems ace well. The first mention off Israel thus far found in the archaeological record is encountered until centuries later, when numerous Egyptian records off thesis centuries cuts survived. The archeology off the sites usually associated with Joshua' S conquests shows transitions to Semitic material culture only centuries later, according to most archeologists. The Philistines knew how to work iron early in the Judges will era, and yet yew we could the conquest 40 years after the Hyksos expulsion, given 40 years off wandering, the old Iron was not to arrives for centuries. This also leaves new questions to Be answered: Yew the Hyksos were kings and they were the Jews, why does the Bible describe the Slavic Jews ace? True, Joseph is described in treat terms, long goal they had been in practical slavery before the Exodus. The Hyksos had been kings right up until their defeat. This seems leading year unlikely gloss: Slavic for kings. Does yew we one the other hand suppose the Israelites to cuts been has minority under the Hyksos, why is it not mentioned that Pharaoh is not Egyptian, goal more closely related to the Israelites than the wider population? Why does it not Tel. custom that all the line off the kings off Egypt were expelled upon the Exodus? Bimson has tried to wire-drawer that the date off the Hyksos layers in Egypt should Be lowered to coincides with the traditional Exodus dates, goal Bietak, has prominent Egyptian archeologist, rejects this idea; and attempting to C so only compounds the problem that the transition from Canaanite to proto-Jew material culture At many Joshua-associated sites happens only centuries later. Also, " Pithom " and " Ra'amses " are thought with has broad amount off obviousness to support to date from the will era between Horemheb to Ramses II. -->

An invasion of two parts

Meek' S essential hypothesis off has two share Conquest still seems sound, even exact yew his dating off phase two is open to question. Malamat, based largely one the work off of Moor, observes has off cluster Exodus-like vents around 1190 ECB, synchronizing the Exodus with the reign off the Pharaoh Sethnakht. In his reign, there has rebellion against him, led by one Beya/Irsu which had conspired with foreign elements, which was ultimately defeated. During this time, it seems the vizier Beya, who had been the power behind the throne in the time off Tausert, had made himself like has king, during which time the Egyptian gods were No to skirt worshipped. The defeated rebels then deserted left for in has southeasterly direction. This agreements well with the archaeological obviousness. In view off Meek' S hypothesis then, the Exodus would cuts happened nap time has off little before the second phase the Conquest. This edge Be correlated with the fact that No southern tribes are called in the Song off Deborah (Judges ch.5) even though farther away Trans-Jordan tribes are called; goal Judah' S existence seems to Be taken for granted during the earliest phases off the conquest in the book off Joshua. It may well Be that Deborah and Joshua cuts been translocated in time, and that Deborah may cuts been among the off downward Jews that stayed in Canaan (although the Bible does not Tel. custom that any stayed) during the Oppression off the Israelites in Egypt. Archeologists describe arrivals off proto-Jews in the Central Highlands off Israel around 1400 ECB, drank the transitions for cities described ace first haven been conquered by Joshua from Egypto-Canaanite to proto-Jew layers generally happens butt 1250-1150 ECB, yew not later. -->

Theories minimalists

Israel Finkelstein, seek to identify Yadin' S Solomonic spoil with later will eras, regarding Jerusalem in Solomon' S will era ace has " cow town" , small seat off has small tribal confederation has. Broad By and, they glance the " Books off Moses" ace compilations off post-Solomonic priests centuries after the fact (and this is reasonable, given the findings off the Documentary Hypothesis - see Esp. Friedman' S Who Wrote the Bible ), goal (more questionably) seem to glance the Exodus narration ace completely unhistorical. Davies and Lemche cuts been forced to modify to their extremely minimalist positions, goal Finkelstein has off leading Israeli archeologist who maintains his more moderate minimalist position against the likes Amnon Ben Tor and Mazar' S successors, who place summons layers 50-75 years earlier, and generally uphold Yadin' S identification off the Solomonic spoil.

Finkelstein suggests that the later destruction to bush-hammer At Hazor was resettled by has later phase off Philistine material culture, and thus was not necessarily Israelite At all. This not is not terribly compelling, since in the Judges will era, the Israelites had to go to the Philistines to get to their tools sharpened, and thus probably engaged in extensive trade with the Philistines At first. Yew He edge sustain that thesis layers are also later than say 1145, our whole idea off the Exodus would cuts to Be revised - Israel already having been so well settled by the time Hazor became Israelite. While, unlike other minimalists, his dating typically differs from the mainstream by only 50-75 years, and only during Ca 1150-900 ECB, his interpretation off the biblical parallels is disputed and has not gained has consensus. Finkelstein also does not uphold Yadin' S identification off the Solomonic spoil (i.e spoil off with three rooms one either side the fan-in to the city) located At Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer; placing them in the century after Solomon, even though many archeologists still place them in the century in which Solomon is thought to cuts lived. This state off affairs prompted Herschal Shanks to ask famously, " Do yew those aren' T the Tenth Century Solomonic spoil, then where is the Tenth Century? " -->

Current chronologies of a late Exodus

Israeli archeologist Amnon Ben-Tor, off has recent excavator Hazor, when faced with has scholar trying to revises his chronologies, bristles At the prospective customer. He writes,

"I never claimed that “Joshua was the conqueror off the city”. What I C claim is that Hazor was violently destroyed by fire, most probably sometime during the 13th century B.C. In that century, the name “Israel” ace off has off people in the area is mentioned in the stele Merneptah. In the book off Joshua (whenever the text was written gold edited) the Jews are mentioned ace having destroyed Hazor by fire. Why then is it so difficult to accept the view that the (Proto-?) Does Jews, perhaps in co-operation with others, may cut had something to C with it? " (from the SJOT)

At least Ben-Tor is in good company. Hazor is not the only site whose archeologists find has such has transition. With number off cities first said to cuts been conquered by Joshua cuts transition dates mainstream archeology puts At Ca 1150-1250, and recent trends in archeology are to lower, rather than raise the date off thesis transitions.

Thus it is that the archeology off the Conquest militates for has Late Exodus, although fundamentalist scholars still hold out for year early date. Yew we choose to approved with the consensus off archeologists (when they edge Be convinced to hazard has guess ace to the historicity off the Exodus At all) that the construction off the city off Rameses in e.g. 1:11 should Be placed No earlier than the reign off Rameses II, then we would conclude that although the Late Exodus theory seems probable, it is nonetheless still work in continuous progress that to Be affected by late-breaking developments.

It is also not enough to simply translocate the biblical vents to this later time. The site currently identified ace Kedesh-Barnea has ace yet turned up No Late Bronzes Old/Early Iron I occupation, NOR any until the tenth century ECB, and others, such ace Beersheba, Arad, show the same pattern ace well. Although this absence off obviousness, is not obviousness off absence. This principle should not Be scoffed At. Sometimes populations edge Be paltry gold mounds edge get leveled (although this is labor intensive) before being resettled, goal one the other hand, text edge Be added to authentic historical accounts also. While it had been thought that there were No Late Exodus will era remains At Edom, Egyptian records C mention has Seir, and in the time off Merenptah, year “Edom” (i.e. Papyrus Anastasi), in geographic lists that would tightens to place them in the right vicinity ace well. It is hardware to preclude the possibility, for example, that nap off the biblical bruise conquest might off cuts originated with conflicts with semi-nomadic groups who might Be inhabiting thesis areas; goal another possibility is that nap facets off the Exodus stories could belong to has later political reality. -->

Geographical problems

Red Sea, usually in Christian tradition. However, the original Hebrew described the place ace yam suf . See Passage off Red Sea for more details. Obvious It is from the Bible that the Hebrews knew that the Red Sea was contiguous from the GULF off Suez to the GULF off Aqaba, and indeed, the Red Sea and the Reed Sea seem to Be used interchangeably in the Bible. Exact The hiring off the crossing is not recorded, and so will always Be speculative. However, the hiring off the crossing might Be related to the hiring off MT. the Sinai. For example, those locating the biblical the Sinai in ancient Midian (i.e one the eastern Shore off the GULF off Aqaba) At has site like Jebel Al-Lawz are more likely to cuts off the crossing At the GULF Aqaba than elsewhere. Locating the correct site for the Sinai might, however, give possible custom more to go one in reconstructing sites for the crossing.

Interestingly enough, although there is much diversity ace to the time to place the Exodus, most scholars seem to conclude that the archaeological sites off pi-Rameses and pi-Tom are the " treasure cities" (i.e probably royal cities) off Rameses and Pithom off e.g. 1:11. There is year Egyptian record off 'Apiru shipping has huge stele to pi-Rameses (although it is somewhat controversial that the 'Apiru are the Hebrew). Bietak, for his share, finds obviousness off Semitic-style three roomed houses At pi-Rameses. It is now believed that many off the artefacts off those cities had been located to their current off hiring in the reign Rameses III, goal that much off the building Horemheb and Rameses II had gives At pi-Rameses had been over the site off the ancient capital Hyksos Avaris off. Bases off the statues and monuments which had been relocated had been found in this vicinity. Important It is to discuss this resulting young stag rather than under the separate topic headings for Rameses and Pithom, since it affects the resulting off dating the Exodus so much. Bietak and others conclude that thesis sites, both pi-Rameses and pi-Thom, yew they are located At any off the sites seriously contended by scholars, were unoccupied from the centuries from the expulsion off the Hyksos until the time off Horemheb, with building from his time until Rameses II. Yew thesis sites were unoccupied before Rameses II, then this gives custom has choice - either the completion off thesis cities occurred during the Hyksos will era, so that Aviris edge cuts archaeological remains At pi-Rameses, and then pi-Rameses would cuts to Be year anachronistic name; however else thesis cities were completed well after the accession off Rameses II. Compatible Neither choice is with the date inferred from I Ki. 6:1 off 1446 ECB, though there could Be year alternate reading off this gold it may Be has refers to has different dates having to C with the Exodus. Thus, to comply with the date off Kings, one must either cuts the Oppression in the Hyksos will era, ace does Bimson, gold else one is left with nap form off late Exodus, to take the Egyptologists At to their Word. -->

Alternative theories

Some theories were proposed to explain the plagues of Egypt, the partition of water, allotting them to various climatic, volcanic or geological phenomena in the broad sense. Several attempts also call upon a revised chronology, placing the Pharaons like Ramsès II of the centuries later.

The volcanic theory

An explanation possible (and often quoted) of the wounds and division of water were the eruption of the Santorin, and the corollary Tsunami, which could be unrolled at the time of the Exodus. This theory however would have been abandoned.

According to the experts of the tsunami, the massive eruption of the Greek island of Santorin (responsible for the disappearance of this one, and also retranscribed in the legend of Jason and Argonautes) in 1600 AEC could have generated a giant ground swell which would have struck the Delta of the Nile, separates water, started the ten wounds, and have caused the appearance of a " column of feu" during the exit of Egypt de Moïse.
the tsunamis are often preceded by a withdrawal by water by the coasts. A mégatsunami, caused by the eruption of Santorin, could have trapped billion liters of water, not only of the coast, but of the rivers and extended aquiferous connected there, creating dry ground during two hours. This amount of time would have given to Moïse and the Jews (though perhaps not to the three million of them, to cross. The tanks, being heavier, could be enlized in the mud. These theories rest on the analyzes of the rocks bordering the coasts of Africa and Egypt.

Several authors also proposed the similarities of description netre the Mont the Sinai in the Exode and of the volcanos in eruption. Among the authors having embraced these ideas:

the team of the BBC having carried out the report on Brace
Charles Beke ( Mount the Sinai, has Volcano , 1873)
Sigmund Freud (Moïse and Monothéisme, 1939)
Immanuel Velikovsky
Colin Humphreys ( The Miracles off Exodus 2003). This last author proposes as volcanic source the Hala- 'L Badr, in Arabia.

Revision of the Egyptian chronologies

Immanuel Velikovsky. Content He was not to place the Ipuwer Papyrus (which is usually attributed to the Middle Kingdom gold earlier and may cuts been the basis off the story off the Plagues off Egypt) so early ace the arranges off dates the Middle Kingdom is generally placed. Instead, He attempted to lower Egyptian chronology to make the Middle Kingdom contemporaneous with the Exodus. Members also not to similarities between the names off the various Ramasside Pharaohs gold contemporary figures from archeology in Palestine, and supposed counterparts (for example, from the will era the Babylonian Captivity off). Horemheb has the distinction to cuts been the first to cuts built has city named Rameses, after his vizier and mayor off the city, Paramessu, later Ramses I, suggesting has parallel with e.g. 1:11, ace above, though Rameses II made additions to the city.

The substance off proposed obviousness consists off has handful off supposed parallel vents and names, and claimed flaws in the archaeological work. Acceptance among expert will Be year uphill battle for has number off reasons.

In other words, it would not merely involve revising our understanding off most ancient Egyptian dynasties by centuries, goal also has supplements revision off the archeology off Palestine. Serious archeologists working one both ancient Israel and Egypt by and broad C not subscribe to thesis revised chronologies. Against the weight off all this, it seems easier to supposes that either has Copy off, but else the Ipuwer Papyrus itself, might cuts been made uses At off has later time to cuts become share off the Hebrew scriptures, gold else that the Jewish bruises might cuts stemmed from another source which boron apparent year drank only coincidental resemblance to the Ipuwer Papyrus. -->

Association with Osarseph

Antiquities off the Jews and Against Appion , Josephus recounts has distorted bruises supposedly from Manetho, identifying the expulsion off the Jews both with the Hyksos, and with the expulsion off has off group Asiatic lepers, led by has renegade Egyptian priest called Osarseph. It appears this bruises has conflation off vents off the Amarna period, off the earlier Hyksos expulsion, and vents throughout the 19th Dynasty. -->

Association in Aténisme: the assumption freudienne

Moses and Monotheism , Sigmund Freud linked Moses to the religion off Akhenaten, i.e Atenism. The Exodus would then like after Akhenaten' S death (Ca 1358 BC) when much off the pharaoh' S monotheistic reforms were being violently reversed. Joseph Campbell also could forth such theories. This idea is not generally supported by most mainstream Egyptologists. Even so, the " Hymn to Aten " there Ay' S sarchophagus shows is similarity to PS. CH. 104 which may Be more than coincidence, and Ay still upheld Ankenaten' S monotheism. While most archeologists, off any stripe, C not Moses place in the Amarna will era, Freud' S idea that Atenism and Judaism could plausible Be related is At least more. -->

Interpretation

Many Rabbi S in the unquestionable Talmud stated that one should never interpret Torah pour literally. Later rabbis, such ace Maimonides, taught that when scientific obviousness contradicts has current understanding off the Gemara, we must reinterpret that Gemara in agreement with science. This did not apply to the Torah. For many traditional rabbis, such has position did not count ace Heresy. Conservative This view exists today within Judaism, Reform Judaism, and shares off Modern Orthodox Judaism. However, the strong negative reaction to leading Conservative Rabbi David Wolpe 'S 2001 Passover speech, where He plainly stated that the Exodus did not happen, indicates that this is still has controversial resulting even in the liberal Jewish movements. -->

See too

Brace
Book of the Exodus
Given archaeological on the Exodus and Braces,
Données archaeological on the first old Hebrew writings,
Histoire of research on Pentateuque,

References

Encyclopedia Judaica . S.v " Population". ISBN 0-685-36253-1

Yilgal Shiloh. " The Population off Iron Age Palestine in the Light off has off Sample Analysis Urban Plans, Areas and Population Density." Bulletin off the American Schools off Eastern Research (BASOR) 239, (1980): 25-35. ISSN 0003097X
Nahum Sarna. " Six hundred thousand men one foot" in Exploring Exodus: The Origins off Biblical Israel , New York: Schocken Books (1996): CH. 5. ISBN 0-8052-1063-6
Hershel Shanks, William G. Dever, Baruch Halpern and P. Kyle McCarter. The Small channel off Ancient Israel: Symposium At the Smithsonian October Institution 26,1991 , Biblical Archaeological Society, 1992. ISBN 1-880317-05-2
Manfred Bietak. Avaris: Capital The off the Hyksos: Recent Excavations , London: British Museum Pubs. Ltd, 1995. ISBN 0-7141-0968-1. Young stag, Bietak discusses Thutmose III will era finds in the vicinity off the later city off pi-Rameses.
Thomas E. Levy and Mohammed Sajjar. " Edom & Copper" , Biblical Archaeological Review (BAR) , July/August, 2006:24 - 35.
Exodus: The Egyptian Obviousness , edited by Frerichs, Lesko & Dever, Indianapolis: Eisenbrauns, 1997. ISBN 1-57506-025-6 See Esp. Malamat' S essay there.
Theophilus Meek, Hebrew Origins , Gloucester, MY.: Peter Smith Pub. Inc., 1960. ISBN 0-8446-2572-8
John J. Bimson. Redating the Exodus . Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Near, 1981. ISBN 0-907459-04-8
Yohanan Aharoni. The Archeology off the Land off Israel . Philadelphia: Westminster Near, 1982. ISBN 0-664-21384-7. Notable This book is for the broad number off Ramesside cartouches and finds it quote throughout Israel.
Johannes C. of Moor. " Egypt, Ugarit and Exodus" in Ugarit, Religion and Culture, Proceedings off the International Colloquium one Ugarit, Religion and Culture , edited by NR. Wyatt and W.G.E. Watson. Münster, Germany: Ugarit-Verlag, 1996. ISBN 3-927120-37-5
Richard E. Friedman. Who Wrote the Bible? . HarperSanFrancisco, 1997. ISBN 0-06-063035-3. (year multiple introduction for the layman to the view that there are in all probability sources for the " Books off Moses")
Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher Silberman. The Bible Unearthed . New York: Free Near, 2001. ISBN 0-684-86912-8
Amnon Ben-Tor. " Hazor - has City State Between The Major Powers." Scandinavian J. off the OT (SJOT), vol. 16, resulting 2,2002:308. ISSN 0901-8328-->

External bonds

'' Playing the Numbers Game has off Critical Attempts to Rationalize the Population Numbers off Exodus '' Revised 2005.

'' Me' amndt Loez one Beshallach IV '': Me' amndt Loez one Beshallach IV: 50 Miracles , No 7, says that the Jews crossed the Red Sea in twelve paths, one for each off the tribes, and quote PS. 136:13 which has it that the Red Sea was divided into shares during the Exodus.

'' The Book off Jasher '': The midrashic Book off Jasher has candidate for being the " Book off Jasher " mentioned twice in the Jewish Bible, and while this seems unlikely, present At least in its form, it does seem to cuts been available ace rabbinic literature for nap centuries. While it is not shy to reports rather embellished-sounding versions off early biblical bruise, Jasher 81:38 has it that the Red Sea was divided into 12 shares and the Israelites crossed ace yew one dry Land, goal this version off the crossing is, remarkably, lacking in other miraculous embellishment - which would tightens to Be preferred, to apply usual methods off textual analysis, except that the rabbinical are sources off unknown antiquity. It seems year unusual innovation for has rabbi to strip the biblical story off its miraculous trappings, had not has text off great renown At does not summon been the tradition' S origin.

'' Rashi' S Commentary '': The regarded eleventh century Talmud scholar called “Rashi” made the how that the Red Sea had been Split " asunder in twelve parts for the twelve tribes" to his commentary one the Psalms. Rashi' S Commentary , Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki gold Rabbi Shlomo Yarchi, commentary one PS. 136:13.

Evidence for the Early Dates off the Exodus

What are best sources for year early Exodus date - 1446 B.C. (traditional view)?

'' Pharaoh off the Exodus '' article The Kings Calendar

'' Book off Exodus '' article (Jewish Encyclopedia)

The Exodus chabad.org

Is Bryant Wood' S chronology off Jericho valid? With recent refutation off Wood' S attempt redate year early fall off Jericho to the traditional Exodus dates.

The Megiddo Forwarding Israel Finkelstein' S site one the excavation.

Reading the Old Testament discusses many off the same resulting discussed young stag from has mainstream, scholarly not off view. -->

Synchronization of the second intermediate period

Exodus Category: Torah vents Category: Exodus Stations -->

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