Speleology

Birth of speleology

At all times, the man attended the caves to find Abri and Protection then to approach his Gods and Croyance S.

Modern speleology is resulting from the Mythes like curiosity interfered science with the Age of Enlightenment. Then the romantic make a Mode of it; later still, the Aventurier S of the 19th century are warned of the “privileged Conservatoire” which the Caverne constitutes.

Lastly, are born learned societies and association S whose Edouard-Alfred Martel, Robert of Jolly and Norbert Casteret is, each one at their time, the most known founders in France (See the “historical” part of the French federation of speleology).

The first Institute of speleology in the world is created in 1920 with Cluj (Romania) by the biologist Emile Gustave Racovitza.

Conquest of the pits in France

One allots to Louis Marsolliers the first descent, with the force of the arms, in a Languedocien pit of almost forty meters, in July 1780! Was a question it can be makes of it homonym Benoit-Joseph Marsollier of Vivetières…

Many contemporary pioneers of Diderot and D' Alembert, pushed by a scientific curiosity, will be the precursors of a discipline which one will name later “speleology”.

With the romantic ones, the Grotte becomes with the mode. The caves are arranged to be visited and it adventure is sought by a middle-class in search of emotion and return to nature. The archeologists discover the remainders of the their painting and cave men. The cave allures by its mystery, its history redécouverte and its secrecies.

It is in June 1888, with the crossing of the underground river of Bramabiau, that Edouard-Alfred Martel highlights the system hydrogeologic of an underground river which he will then seek in many campaigns carried out in the various solid masses Karstique S French. Martel will implement several techniques, passing from the swing on the rung and cable ladder, making use of the telephone. It will make discover the hygiene of the sources by showing that it is necessary to create a Périmètre of protection in calcareous ground.

After the war of 1914-1918, which stopped for a long moment underground exploration, two great names will ensure the changing: Robert of Jolly and Norbert Casteret.

Of Jolly will mark his time by the discipline Spartan and treated on a hierarchical basis which it imposes on his team and by the material modern resulting from the industry of war that it will develop for his explorations.

Casteret is a recluse, his discoveries (in particular the resolution of the enigma of the sources of the the Garonne) are the work of an exceptional individual who knew ruser with nature. Its some thirty books and several hundreds of conferences made of Casteret the inspirer of multiple vocations of speleologists.

The interval wars will see the arrival of mountaineers, accustomed with the vacuum, bringing with them of new technical training. Speleology “is democratized” because of use of the technique on simple cord. Forwardings, much lighter, allow the discovery of enormous labyrinthian networks much more complex than the theories of Martel considered it!

With the Release, the books of Martel and the spirit of freedom of the post-war period, make flow of many young people towards this activity become “sporting speleology”. It is the birth of the spéléo-clubs and with it the increase in the records of depths reached in the cavities. French speleology organizes forwardings abroad and federates: French federation of speleology (FFS). The FFS in its turn structure and creates the French School of speleology (EFS). The contribution of this teaching, related on novel methods of progression to the blockers and chutes on simple cord S, explodes the number of the explored cavities. The records of depth or development of networks follow one another.

Conquest of the deepest pits

The world records of depth reached in a natural cavity remained a long time in France, with famous cavities like the Henne Morte, the Gouffre Shepherd, the Pierre-Saint-Martin, the Gouffre Jean-Bernard, the Gouffre Mirolda…

Since October 2004 however, more the great depth reached by speleologists in natural cavities is in the pit Krubera - Voronja, located in Abkhazie, Western province secessionist of the Georgia.

In this remarkable cavity of the the Western Caucasus, the mythical depth of -2000 meters was reached and even exceeded by teams of international speleologists, in particular of the Russian and Ukrainian . Explorations are in hand, in spite of the physical and political difficulties encountered. The depth reached was of -2170 m in January 2007.

Speleology and company

Today speleology is also practiced like a leisure of nature, democratized, where certain cavities become the “traditional ones”, topographiées by the speleologists but visited as well by the speleologists as by vacation centres, families or professionals of the industry of the leisure with their customers.

Beside this tourist practice and of leisure, the speleologist is carrying an ethical , formulated in particular by the French federation of speleology (FFS) and by the International union of speleology (UIS). He contributes thus to the knowledge and the protection of the underground inheritance. He then becomes a true concrete actor of the Sustainable development.

In addition to the ethical values that it conveys, speleology tends to be essential in an increasing way in the scientific world. In addition to the essential complement that it brings to the Géologie, the Karstologie, the Hydrologie, the Archéologie, the Paléontologie, the Rock mechanics … speleology is interested in the underground world in sometimes original scientific disciplines: one can quote for example the human studies of acclimatization " out of the temps" necessary to the approach of the space flights of long life; or the Paléodatation using the stalactites, more precise and more complete than the dating of icicles. Speleology implies also a practice of the Topographie, Biologie, Météorologie… in forms adapted to the underground medium.

The contributions of speleology to the above mentioned disciplines scientific can be summarized as follows:

Hydrogeology

The Hydrogéologie is the study of the Eau X surface and underground, considered either in their action modelatrice or in their relationship with the geological structures . In ic medium Karst, the circulation of water is very different from that observed in the other mediums; it deserves a particular study.

The speleologist who observes directly phenomena generally not very accessible is the essential collaborator of the hydrogeologist. Even the “speleologist of Sunday”, sometimes qualified of “tourist”, can contribute an important share by the new observations of circulation of water which it will be able to report. It is enough for that to know some basic concepts, to be interested in the medium and to be armed with patience.

One will never insist enough on the value of a geological or hydrogeologic data, even approximate (provided that it is correctly raised), collected at the time of a speleological exit: it should be remembered that the same data, drawn from a mechanical survey to several hundred meters of depth, would be much more expensive.

The “sporting” speleologist or “tourist” does not need to transform themselves into high level “scientist”. He has simply the duty to transmit his observations to the scientists who do not have the possibility of entering and to go down under ground.

Water which interests hydrogeology in calcareous medium can have three distinct types of source, from which the effects on the development of the karst are quite different. They can come: - rivers external to the karstic zone, - meteoric precipitations - of condensation.

The course of subterranean water generally tortuous and is conditioned primarily by the fracturing of the calcareous solid mass, its lithology and the slope of the layers of ground.

Taking into account their origins, the underground rivers can undergo sudden and important risings, sometimes differed compared to the initiating precipitations, fallen on slopes sometimes different and moved away from the entry from the cavities.

In a general way, the watershed surface seldom coincides with that of subterranean water. It is thus important to specify the underground limits of circulation of water.

The karstic sources are characterized by a great variability of the flows, with impetuous risings which alternate with periods of low water level even marked of drying up.

The study of the Hydrogramme of rising highlights the progressive saturation of the cracks of the rock: it is the phase of concentration. In the second time, water invades the conduits: it is the phase of paroxysm which lasts until suspension of the principal food. Then a slow fall comes which corresponds to the draining of the major conduits then cracks.

Karstology

The Karstologie is a scientific discipline with whole share whose object of study concentrates on the phenomena associated with the grounds limestones.

The speleologists produce results of observations made to surface and in the middle same of the solid masses ic Karst.

The contribution of speleology to the karstology is very important:

The observation and the measurements made on the physico-chemical parameters of the boxing cavity, as well as air and water which it contains, make it possible to specify the current operation of the karst.

The examination of the Spéléothème S and the general morphology of the conduits makes it possible to erect scaffolding of the assumptions on the genesis and the last evolutions of the cavity.

Conversely, the karstology applied to a solid mass and a whole of close cavities will make it possible to better include/understand the history and the space logic of a new cavity in the course of exploration on the same solid mass, or in the vicinity of cavities previously studied or of comparable nature.

Hypogean topography

A cavity exists really only when its characteristics are described and when its forms and reliefs are represented by plans. Except particular cases, the whole of this information must be published to ensure a constructive division of knowledge, for the continuation of explorations of the cavity or the solid mass.

To ensure a chart faithful and useful for explorations and following studies, it is necessary to carry out a topography of the cavity. This topography is carried out gradually, in two principal phases: 1 - The survey: it is the collection of data characterizing the position and the form of the various parts of the cavity. 2 - The carryforward: it is the calculation and the graphic restitution of the corresponding forms on an adapted support (paper, screen.)

The scales of representation used are variable (generally 1/100è for the small cavities with the 1/000è even weaker for the largest cavities) according to the extension of the cavity. With the modern methods of calculation of the carryforward by computer, this scale factor can be easily adjusted. In the case of a manual carryforward, this factor should well be chosen a priori, under penalty of having to start again most of calculations and drawing in the course of work.

In addition to the scale used, it is also necessary to mention on the drawing: - the position of the Magnetic north, - the date of the survey (and not that of the carryforward) necessary to take account of the magnetic variation, - the name of the commune and the place known as where the entry of the cavity is, - the name of the authors (raised and carryforward) of topography, - coordinates and the altitude of the entry, - an indication of the level of precision of the survey. Other relevant information (geological, climatic, biological, etc.) can be added on the drawing, if they do not weigh down too the representation. In the contrary case, they can be mentioned in the written description of the cavity.

As soon as the cavity has a certain complexity (variable slopes and directions), it is necessary to produce at least two complementary sights (for example: a sight in plan developed or projected and a developed or projected vertical cut), like some significant transverse sections of the conduits.

The coordinates of the entry are to be mentioned in a system of possible geolocalisation most universal (UTM,…) allowing a taking into easy account in the GPS.

There exist many software of mine surveying computer-assisted. Most known currently are: TOPOROBOT, VISUAL TOPO, GH TOPO (project HADES).

The tools of underground survey must make it possible to measure three dimensional parameters defining the “skeleton” of the cavity: direction in a horizontal plane (“azimuth”), the slope in a vertical plan (“slope”), the distance between two successive points of measurement (“distance”). When the cavity is appreciably horizontal (cave), one will be able to be satisfied to estimate the slope. Other complementary, quantitative or qualitative data morphological, make it possible to draw a “preparing” of the conduits: width, height, presence of obstacles or special reliefs (spéléothèmes, blocks, arrived of water,…).

Paleontology

The rocks which interest the speleologist in the first chief are of sedimentary origin; they are in particular the carbonated rocks. In a large majority of the cases, these rocks have an organic origin: they are refuses of shells and other parts of animals or vegetable marine, accumulated at the bottom of old seas, more rarely of old lakes, now disappeared. These rocks limestones constitute masses which present an importance and an extent much higher than the carbonated rocks of chemical origin. They are locatable, even for the layman, by the obviousness and the regularity of their stratifications.

The state of conservation of the skins of the organizations which contributed to their formation is very variable. One calls “fossiliferous” rocks those which present remainders, definitely recognizable with the naked eye, animals or plants Fossile S. Très frequently, with the assistance of a microscope, one can also locate very small fossils in limestones where no organic structure is noticed with the naked eye.

Other times still, chemical or mechanical phenomena made disappear more or less completely the traces from the primitive organic structure; One speaks then about process of diagenesis, dissolution and partial recrystallization, produced during or shortly after the deposit of the sedimentary material. This transformation can be very thorough and lead to a complete recrystallization, until transforming all the rock into a crystalline mass.

During the course of a hypogean gallery, it often sometimes happens to find, enchased in the walls, of the remainders of shells of Gastéropode S, Bivalve S or another fossils marine or lake.

Hypogean meteorology

Hypogean meteorology is the study of the climate of the caves and all the phenomena which determine it.

Although the studied environment is limited in volume, the hypogean study of the climate is difficult because of the weak intervals of variation of the parameters studied. For example, whereas the Température external of a place varies several degrees even tens of degrees, that of a cavity fluctuates often only of some dizièmes of degrees in the same time interval. Measurements must thus be carried out with a high degree of accuracy, by taking guard with the parasitic influences. These considerations remain valid for other parameters such as Pression, Humidité, movements of air,…

The goal of hypogean weather research is double: - to look further into the knowledge of the known underground environment, - to discover desparties still unknown or impossible to reach.

The first information concerns especially the biologist who is interested in the underground living conditions.

The second information interests the speleologist, who hopes more on the unknown parts of the cave. Indeed, the movements of air make it possible to detect the presence of not yet penetrated large volumes. In the same way temperature variation in the course of progression make it possible to detect the presence of junctions.

Temperature

The temperature measurement is done today using thermometers digital, posting the tenth of degree, precis and compact.

Archeology

The speleologist must sometimes transform himself into archeologist amateur. The caves are indeed places privileged to collect information essential to the knowledge of the old man. The speleologist is then invested precise and delicate reponsabilities.

Even in the absence of stable and durable presence of the former men in the caves, the cavities functioned often like natural traps and thus preserve many remainders of animals or the human ones, but also of other beings living in the sector (seeds.).

The considerable importance of the natural cavities for studies of the old man rises from four principal factors: - they concentrate the remainders by effect of attraction (trap, shelter), - they preserve the remainders by effect of burial, - they preserve the chronology of the beings and events, by effect of stacking - they preserve the reference marks by effect of protection against the bad weather.

The cavities are thus sites of easy determination, located exactly and circumscribed in space. Consequently their deposits are favorable to the possibility of discovered and study.

The old man seldom used the major zones of the cavities, or only for ritual reasons. He generally chose like establishment stable, the input area or vestibular, naturally more luminous and dry. Such zones could moreover be adapted and regulated thermically by means of structures of skins tended on posts or equivalent.

Thus the presence of objects manufactured in the internal zones will be rather due to the transport of these objects by water which acted on external archaeological deposits.

In some exceptional cases only, the cavities can appear interesting for what they reveal on their walls. The speleologist archeologist must thus be accustomed to regard the cavities as deposits of filling rich in vestiges. These deposits in the cavity must be explored with precaution, in the field of precise and durable programs. That is even truer if an archaeological potential is suspected.

Any intervention in a deposit in cavity, must follow strict methods of scientific excavation. Because the most original characteristic of such excavations is that it is about a highly destructive method. Such excavations must thus produce the greatest quantity of valid information and give place to a rational and permanent documentation.

It is necessary to keep present at the spirit that any destruction of layer will be an irremediable loss, and will be also punished by the law.

Practical of speleology

For safety reasons and of respect of the karstic medium, it is strongly recommended to be accompanied by a titular member of framing by a diploma delivered by the French federation of speleology.

The hardware requirement is connected with that of the Escalade for the vertical passages:

a cross-belt with longes to ensure itself,
static cords varied lengths,
of the material of descent and increase (handle, pedal, etc),
a helmet with its lighting (the traditional lamp with Acétylène tends to disappear with the profit from the flashlights with leds),
a protective combination and underclothing hot,
of the gloves to protect itself from abrasion, cuts, even of the heating of the chute.
a resistant bag called kit for the transport of the material, the vivres, water, a wall drill to place ankles in the rock, of the first-aid kit and a cover of survival,
of the rising walking shoes, with sole resistant which replace the boots when the cavity is not too wet.

According to the medium of progression and his objectives, the speleologist can need adapted special material:

an inflatable dinghy to cross the deep water zones,
a combination neoprene for the courses in river,
of the material of climbing: declad, dynamic cord,
material of removal of obstructions: two-handed hammer, graver, puncher, explosives,…
of the material of topography to measure the cavities: compass, clinometer, decametre or laser measuring device lengths.

The physical effort, without being inevitably intense, is not to neglect because speleology has a sporting dimension. The endurance and the knowledge of its limits, associated with the control of the techniques of progression, make it possible to avoid the accidents. A hydration and a regular food are important to preserve its physical capacities. The mutual aid is essential for the safety of the group.

In case of doubt about its physical capacities or morals, it is advised to give up the excursion.

Topographies can be obtained and commented preferably by the means of the clubs.

Federal classification of the level of difficulty of the cavities

The cavities are indexed in five categories, are defined in the recommendations of the French federation of speleology and are ratified by the public authorities:

Class 0: cavity arranged for tourism.
Class 1: cavity or portion of cavity not requiring a material other than a helmet with lighting.
Class 2: cavity or portion of cavity of initiation or discovery allowing an approach of the various aspects of the underground medium and techniques of speleology with specific obstacles. Their crossing requires possibly material and the presence of water should not prevent the progression of the group.
Class 3: cavities or portions of cavities allowing to improve in the knowledge of the medium and the techniques of progression. The obstacles can be connected. The whole of the verticals should not exceed a few tens of meters, preferably in several sections. The presence of water should not block the progression of the group, nor to involve a modification of the equipment of the verticals.
Class 4: one finds the remainder of the cavities not classified in the preceding ones.

Spéléo French help (SSF)

The French federation of speleology is the only French sporting federation to have a structure of autonomous and entirely voluntary help. Spéléo French help (SSF), which fété in 2007 with Montélimar its 30 years of existence, is a commission of the FFS gathering within departmental structures nearly 2000 speleologists specialized in the rescue and the assistance to victims in underground medium.

The Ministry for the Interior, by national convention declined on the level of each department, recognizes the paramount role and impossible to circumvent SSF concerning the underground part of aid operations.

The SSF received in 2006 the approval of civil security.

Techniques and the materials (stretchers,…) developed exceeded their scope of application since they are taken again by the first-aid workers in mountain, ravine, canyon, etc

The " knowledge-faire" developed with the passing of years exported itself in the whole world. This knowledge to make recovers in particular the following activities:

technical of evacuation of victims in difficult conditions (horizontal in confined surroundings and vertical in complex ground);
management and organization of an aid operation;
plunged underground;
pumping;
means of communication: telephone and radio operator undergrounds (Nicola system);
implemented of drillings;
removal of obstructions with the explosive;
…

International speleological organizations

Here a list (which remains certainly to be supplemented):

the International union of speleology (UIS) facilitates the projects and the exchanges between the speleologists of the whole world. Its members are national associations of speleology (federations,…) whole world, which one finds the list in their Internet site (see external Liens ).
the speleological Federation of European Union (FSUE), created in 1990 by the International union of speleology as a regional branch for the European Union, has a total autonomy now and extends its sphere of activity to the whole of the 49 countries which have whole or part of their territory on the continent of Europe.
speleological Union of the balkans (BSU).
the speleological Federation of Latin America and the Caribbean (FEALC).

Major speleological demonstrations

The speleological demonstrations, of great fame, are numerous. They are organized by the national federations or international, even by ad hoc associations. Here is a nonexhaustive list:

the international congress of speleology, organized under the aegis of the UIS every 4 years. The next one will be held from July 19th to 26th 2009 in Kerrville, Texas, the United States (KERRVILLE 2009).
the European congress of speleology, organized under the aegis of the FSUE, one year before the international congress when this one is held out of Europe. The next one will have place with Lans-in-Vercors, Isere, France from August 23rd to 30th 2008 (VERCORS 2008).
national congresses of speleology, organized by each federation, generally each year.
the festivals sets of themes and regional, whose reputation often exceeds the borders of the countries or areas organizing…

The major demonstrations are indexed in the specialized diaries, and in particular in diary FSUE and diary UIS:

European Night of the bald person mouse
Festival of the image spéléo
Meeting of the teachers in speleology
Festival of speleological arts

The French federation of speleology (FFS) organizes every year, with the active participation of its local structures, the national Days of speleology and canyon (JNSC). Each first weekend of October, the general public can thus discover speleology and the canyon.

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