Sigillée ceramics

The sigillée ceramic is a fine Céramique intended for the service with table characteristic of the Roman High-Empire. It is characterized by a red varnish more or less clearly and especially by decorations in relief, moulded, printed or stuck and Estampille S from where it draws its name: sigillée coming from sigillum , the seal. This type of pottery met a very great success in the Mediterranean world as from the first century before our era. Several great production centres are known and it is possible to recall the history of these production centres, in particular of their displacement towards the Roman provinces in connection with the displacement of the zones of diffusion of this ceramics. Easily identifiable and datable, the sigillée ceramics shards constitute an important directing fossil in the archaeological excavations and are invaluable indices to date from the Stratigraphie S.

From Italy to the provinces: history of the diffusion of sigillée ceramics

Potters of Arezzo

It is in Italy that the production of sigillée appears at the first century before our era. The most important production is at Arezzo ( Aretium ) in Étrurie. This ceramic production is in the continuity of preceding Italian ceramics from the point of view of its success and its diffusion. As from the second century before our era, indeed, the Italian and Roman ceramic productions know a business success without precedent and a diffusion hitherto unequalled. This ceramics known as campanienne (Campanienne has, B or C) are markers of romanisation and testify to the economic dynamism of Rome and Italy, as well as rationalization of the techniques of production, to leave in particular servile work. Enormous quantities are produced and diffused on a very vast scale.

Ceramics arétine, sigillée ceramics produced in the city of Arezzo, falls under the continuity of this production from the point of view of its diffusion. It introduces important ruptures however. Formal rupture first of all: after centuries of prevalence of ceramics with black varnish, the fashion of ceramics with red varnish is essential and will last. Rupture also in the techniques of production which require the development of new techniques of decoration and cooking. Of -50 with -30 one attends the installation of this production, by gropings starting from Campanienne B produced in Étrurie. Once developed new ceramics is a fulgurating success and very quickly supplants the productions of campanienne. The time of Auguste constitutes the apogee of the production which knows quasi a monopoly in the trade of the ceramics of luxury in the occident of the Roman world, and takes even an important place in the oriental party of the Mediterranean. This ceramics knows also a strong diffusion towards North in the Gallic areas.

The workshops of Arezzo localized in urban environment and were very concentrated, which was to form a preindustrial urban landscape little running in the world before the 18th century. Mobilized labor was very numerous: one knows 2600 signatures of potters approximately, much of vases in addition are not signed and the signatures can name a person in charge of manufacture behind which it is necessary to imagine many workmen. The realization of the vases decorated in relief required a qualification and a knowledge to make remarkable. Many labor, sometimes very qualified, delicate cooking of ceramics in important furnaces (furnaces with pipe), standardization of the productions (decorations reproduced by impression of punches): the production of sigillée of Arezzo attests of a remarkable economic dynamism, undoubtedly signs great profitability of the productions.

As from the years 50 of our era the production of Arezzo yields the place to more dynamic provincial productions, which took again the techniques and the forms of the arétine. The discovery of a batch of ceramics of Graufesenque with Pompéi in 79, buried by the eruption, testifies fully to the passage of the production of Italy towards the provinces, and thus of the inversion of a commercial flow easily detectable by the archeologists.

Gallic workshops

The introduction of the production as a Gaulle

The conquest Cesarean, then the organization augustéenne of the provinces moved the center of gravity of the Roman occident towards north. The presence, with the turning of our era, very many legions in the north of Gaulle on the Rhine involved the fast emergence of a significant market for Roman consumer goods in these areas. This installation of Roman consumers then romanized answered a displacement or a reinforcement of the commercial axes along the axis the Rhone-Saone, then towards the Rhine. The producers of sigillée were not long in opening subsidiary companies of their dispensaries in areas closer to these new areas of consumption. The initial displacement of Italian potters quickly involved a very important production by Gallic potters. These new production centres which initially produced ceramics arétine imitations then developed their own repertory of form and decoration. All did not have either the same zone of diffusion. The production of Lyon did not equalize the volume and the diffusion of the workshops de Gaulle of the south and de Gaulle power station, it was however one of the first as a Gaulle, and was established directly since Arezzo towards -15. One indeed found in Lyon of the matrices which were manufactured in Arezzo: the Lyons production was thus a branch of the production of potters of Arezzo of which Atticus, which had also branches with Pisa and Ostie. The workshop of Lyon, installed starting from a transfer of slaves from Italy, thus illustrates concretely the initial mechanism of displacement of the production of Italy towards Gaulle.

Workshops of Gaulle of the South

The diffusion area of the production of Montans covers primarily the Atlantic facade of Gaulle of the West, starting from the axis the Aude-Garonne, the current Spanish Basque Country and Roman Brittany (current Great Britain). Producing at the beginning of the Italic copies of products, Montans is then very depend on the production of Graufesenque. The productions of the second century are of quality poor. The diffusion area of the production of Banassac follows the axis the Rhone-Rhine being diffused in all Gaulle power station and Gaulle Belgium as well as length the axis ligérien. Starting from this vast zone, ceramics of Banassace was also spread along the Danube and was found in the Germanic independent one. Their diffusion also touched Italy of North and the Campania, Maurétanie Tingitane and Syria. The apogee of the workshop is towards 120 - 140. It is about one of the workshops most famous and best studied. It is located in France in the Aveyron close to Millau. The diffusion of its production was exceptionally wide and is found in all the Roman occident, but also in the Germanic free one like in Greece, in Syria, in Egypt and on the coasts of the Black Sea. Graufesenque was the most important production center of the first century. Considerable installations allowed a production in enormous quantity: one thus found a structure of more than eleven meters length, a long time identified with a furnace which was in service of 80 with 120 approximately. Graffites found on shards of potteries enable us to know a little best the organization of the production with Graufesenque. These accounts of potter give lists corresponding to the batches with the name of the potters, the types of vases and their number, in a language mixing the Gallic one and Latin. One of these accounts adds up 25385 vases and another 33845, totals which testify to the extent of the activity deployed on this site, and would correspond to the capacity of a furnace which would be five meters in diameters. The use of furnaces of very big sizes seems however called in question by the results of the most recent excavations. The production on the site began towards 20, rather quickly of the new forms were created and the site profited from the beautiful color bright red of its productions. The years 40 represent the period of maximum quality. Rates and the production accelerated towards 60 - 80, but the quality of felt. The end of the first century is marked by the competition of other sites, finally the rise to power of Lezoux rings the knell of Graufesenque towards 120.

Lezoux and Gaulle power station

The important production center of Lezoux, located at the Arvernes is a little later than the precedents. So workshops of potters are well attested as a Gaulle power station before 90 their production remained modest and of course had very important diffusion neither very remote nor an influence on the other productions. Sigillée produced is then very diverse, reflection of the production of small craftsmen isolated enough taking as a starting point the productions by Arezzo, de Gaulle of the South, the workshop of Lyon or a local inspiration. These small workshops do not seem to follow one another one the other nor to share reasons or punches and produced decorated bowls and smooth bowls.

Towards 90 and 100 of important changes take place, following the arrival of potters strongly influenced by the de Gaulle productions of the South, in particular of Graufesenque. This influence is felt at the time of Trajan on the potters of the Marten-with-Veyre. To the same time approximately the Libertus potter brings a new dynamics to Lezoux. Sure artist and skilful technician, Libertus testifies to traditional influences, perhaps coming from the Eastern Mediterranean. Its work made school: thereafter the subjects and the reasons remain on generations with a still detectable continuity, though very weakened at the 4th century. As from the second century the production of Lezoux becomes also very important in quantity. In second half of the second century the potters of Lezoux lose the Rhenish market with the profit of the de Gaulle workshops of the East, but continue to sell in all Gaulle and on the Danube. The production ceases at the fourth century.

The other dispensaries de Gaulle power station are: Toulon-on-To combine; Vichy; Saint-Rémy-in-Rollat; Whim; Ground-frank.

Workshops of Gaulle of the East

The sigillée production appears in the east on a rather high date without to be directly related to the Italic branches: she does not imitate the productions of Arezzo or of Pouzzoles, also it touches little initially the customers of the Roman soldiers of the provinces borders which are supplied in Italy then as a Gaulle Southerner and power station. As the time of great production of these workshops is even later as that of the workshops de Gaulle power station. It is possible to distinguish several areas of production:
  • On a North-South axis energy of the Séquane territory to Germanic lower (dispensaries of Chémery, Luxeuil, the Madeleine - towards Nancy -, Mitellbronn in the east of Strasbourg, Vinzing in the south of Cologne, Rheinzabern in the south of Mainz towards 140, etc) the
  • In Argonne (dispensaries of Lavoye, Avocourt, Allieux, Bridge-the-Remes)
  • In the area of the Neckar-Danube (dispensaries of Kraherwald, Westerndorf…)

These workshops did not have all the same chronology. So at the 2nd century the workshop of the Madeleine feeds the local market, other dispensaries are shown more dynamic. As from the years 140 - 150 the site of Rheinzabern develops, it is one of most important of Gaulle of the East. It counts approximately 300 potters and substitutes on the Rhine and the Danube its production for that of the areas de Gaulle Southerner, at the same time as it is in competition with the production of Trier. The workshops of Argonne see their production appearing towards 120 on the basis of central imitation of Gaulle before regaining more Rhenish shapes. Their diffusion relates to especially the north of Gaulle and Belgium; The dispensary of Lavoye also sells in Brittany and Germanie.

Starting from 120 the Gallic workshops of the center then east developed a ceramic production specific to Gaulle, the pottery with glaze métallescente. These vases have a brilliant surface, of metal aspect which could receive varied decorations, following the example sigillée. This production strongly developed with the S, in one moment when the sigillée Gallic one saw its production decreasing in quantity and quality. If the workshops of Rheinzabern and Truces disappear in the difficulties from the third century, those of Argonne survive and develop after the invasions of the third century: Lavoye always produces, decoration with the serrated roller is very much used.

African production

As from the second century of our era of important production centres of sigillée clear develop in Roman Africa and export their production in the Western basin of the Mediterranean, exports which last until the last centuries of the empire and undoubtedly answering the economic prosperity of the African provinces during this time.

The turning in the African production is at the end of the second century and at the beginning of the third, as of this moment indeed African sigillée ceramics represents two thirds of the ceramics of table with Ostie. After the success of this sigillée clear produced in great quantity, it is, towards 230 the appearance of sigillée clear C, it so exported very largely and often in parallel with Amphore S. At the end of the third century, in Ostie, almost all the crockery of table is of African production. Consequently the diffusion of the African ceramic productions are on all the circumference of the Mediterranean basin, in Occident but also in the East and that until worms the middle of the fifth century.

There existed several very dynamic production centres in Africa, and there were displacements of the productions. One can distinguish four great types of sigillée African. One is unaware of the place of production exact of sigillée clear a. the Byzacène was the great place of production of sigillée C, but Carthage developed its own production starting from the end of the 3rd century. While moving towards Carthage the productions joined a concentration of labor as well as a large wearing of loading which made it possible to reduce the costs with export.

The East

  • Minor Asia
The production of ceramics in Asia Mineure is registered at the beginning in the hellenistic continuity of the productions thus with Pergame until worms 50. Workshops remain active over the long life in this area, thus with Smyrna and Tarse the production is continuous until the 3rd century. The “Eastern” production of sigillée developed as of before J. - C. then, replacing the Italic imports, became very abundant with S. the exact centers of production of this “Eastern” ceramics are not always well identified and the localizations were discussed. There would be at least three or four great areas of productions. Samos would be oldest, as of the first century before our era, then the areas of Éphèse and Tralles would have developed their production starting from the last quarter of the first century after J. - C (sigillée ES B). The area of Pergame would have exported its production, until the 3rd century, in direction of the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea (sigillée ES C). Finally a production is also attested with Sagalassos of Pamphylie. With the turning of the S, the Aegean productions are well represented in the ceramics imports of the town of Rome, even if they come far behind the African production.

  • the Middle East

Out of Asia Mineure a production seems also attested in Syria (sigillée ES A). The localization of the workshops is however very badly known. The diffusion of sigillées Eastern was very remote, as far as India.

Production

Conditions of localization

The production of sigillée depended on natural factors: the area of production was to combine the proximity of benches of clay and forests for the firewood necessary to cooking. The proximity with a commercial axis was also necessary in order to give a remote diffusion to ceramics and to allow a profitable exploitation.

Labor

Decorations

The decorations which constitute the aspect more striking Roman sigillées ceramics could be obtained in several ways.
  • the use of a mould combined with the use of a turn allowed a manufacture in very many specimens. With the turn the potter assembled its vase by plating clay against the walls of the mould. Inside this last the potter had had the reasons in hollows engraved with punches: they thus appeared in relief on the vase. After drying the foot was added and the whole vase could leave to cooking in company very many the other almost identical specimens.
  • the Barbotine, a very fluid clay, made it possible to stick ornaments on a smooth vase assembled the turn. Thus one could stick reliefs prefabricated while filling of clay of the hollow punches. Strong reliefs thus were obtained: characters, animals.
  • the use of gouges, casters and serrated rollers, especially at the time late, allowed incisions and decorations of vegetable appearance.
  • the signature of the potter was printed by a punch on the bottom of the vase, inside.

Realization and cooking of ceramics

economic Interpretation

Sigillée, an exemplary case of the debates on the ancient economy

The nature of the ancient economy was the object of an important debate historiographic starting from the end of the 19th century. This debate opposed the scientists considering that the ancient economy was close to the modern capitalist economy - named modernistic - scientists considering that it quite different because was primarily turned towards subsistence farming and incompetent to create phenomena of market distinct from the other social structures. This antiquated economy like would have been enchased in the policy and cultural and the relatively immutable one. For this reason the scientists supporting this opinion were named primitivists , most famous of them being Moses Finley, whereas the most known figure of “modernistic” was Michel Rostovtzeff. The pejorative character of “modernistic” names and “primitivists” gives rather well an account of the violence which these polemics could reach, whose stake, if it changed these last years, is not completely extinct. In such a context historiographic, the case of sigillée raised many discussions: the extent of the productions and the diffusions, the geographical shift of the production centres called explanations and seemed a priori to support the modernistic assumption. The bonds which could also exist between the owners of these workshops and the leading political community were also discussed within the framework of the debate: to succeed in identifying the owners of the workshops with the Roman political elites, it was clearly to make of these last a social class engrossing the means of production and the political power, and thus to bring it closer to the middle-class of the modern time. The debate one sees it could not either completely avoid being influenced by political considerations suitable for the history of the twentieth century and the place of the Marxisme in this history.

The question of the owners of the dispensaries

T.P. Wiseman suggested that senatorial families had interests in the manufacture and the trade of ceramics arétines. The names of certain potters indeed return to the names of senators known at the end of the republic, thus the potter T. Rufrenus bears a rare name which is also that of an officer being used under the orders as Lépide in -43 in Narbonnaise. In the same way the potter C. Vibienus would return to the senator C. Vibienus, adversary of the powerful orator of the plebs Clodius Pulcher. These two senatorial families would have had possessions in the area of Arezzo and would have invested consequently in the production of ceramics. It should be noticed that in spite of their “industrial” nature trades of clay - manufacture of ceramics, amphoras, tiles and bricks - and their processing site, the figlinae , are regarded by the Romans as activities directly derived from agriculture. It thus is not of trade or craft industry, activity which can harm dignity and which a senator cannot direct directly, but of the good management of its family inheritance. The identifications suggested by Wiseman however raised the reserves of Moses Finley.

List and chronology of signatures of potters

See too

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