The shroud of Turin is a relic preserved in the royal vault of the Cathédrale Saint-Jean-Baptist of Turin, Italy. It is about a cloth in old flax which shows the image of a man who would present physical evidences of torture corresponding to a Crucifixion.
Pour of many believers, it would act of the shroud, having covered Jesus de Nazareth when it was put at the tomb: its image would have been printed into negative on fibers, at one moment which would correspond to the proclamation of the Résurrection of Jesus.
Pour the skeptics, the shroud is a medieval counterfeit or the work of an artist carried out at ends of devotions.
L' Catholic church, guardian of the shroud, never decided officially, considering that the authenticity or not shroud did not add anything to the Christian faith.

The opponents and the partisans of the authenticity tend to have irreconcilable positions on the cause of the formation of the image of the shroud, which made the dialog very difficult.

Evidence and arguments quoted against the authenticity of the Shroud

• the letter of a bishop of the Middle Ages to the Pape of Avignon, which declared be well-informed personally that the image had been skilfully painted to tap the money of the pilgrims;
• the tests of Carbon dating of 1988 which determined one medieval time of the analyzed sample;
• analysis of the image under the microscope by, which concluded that ordinary pigments had been employed;
• the fact that the print is not deformed, and proportions of the body considered to be unusual.

Evidence and arguments quoted for the authenticity of the shroud of Turin

• historical events tending to accredit the thesis that Mandylion and the shroud of Turin are one and even object;
• material analyzes of the textile which make go up its origin at the first century; in particular chemical analyzes on the spots which contradict the assertions of McCrone directly;
• unusual properties of the image itself, of which some affirm that it could not be produced by a technique of formation of image known before the 19th century;
• the study of pollens by various botanists tending to show that the shroud would have travelled, in particular in the area of current Israel

Description

The shroud is rectangular, measuring 4,36 m out of 1,11 m broad. Cloth is woven in rafter and is composed of fibers of flax interlaced at certain fiber places of Coton, it contains marks of burns due to a fire. It appears the image in frontal and dorsal sight of a naked man, with his hands across the size. The two sights are aligned head-digs. Before and the back of the head unite almost in the middle of the fabric, the sights correspond to the orthogonal projection of an human body.

The “man of the shroud” wears a beard and hair in the middle of the shoulders. He is well proportioned, rather muscular and measures approximately 1.75 m, which is an unusual size for a man of the first century (the period of died of Jesus), or the Middle Ages (time of the first uncontested testimony of the existence of the shroud, and a possible counterfeit). Spots red dark, interpreted as being Blood or a similar substance, are found on fabric, showing various wounds:

• a wrist at least present a large spot of circular form, appearance of a perforation (the second wrist is hidden by the folding of the hands)

• on the side, apparently another spot
• of the small spots around the face of the appearance of wounds
• a mass of linear traces on the chest and the legs, apparently caused by a punishment.

It is to be announced that under the hematic traces one does not find the coloring which characterizes the image of the body.

The May 28th 1898, the Italian photo hobbyist Secondo Pia took the first photography of the shroud and was amazed, during the development, by the result of the negative one which gave the aspect of an positive image, which implies that the image of the shroud is itself, to some extent, negative (the negative one of negative is positive). Strictly speaking, the image on the shroud is a negative “relief”, in which the sectors of the body touching fabric are darker, and not negative “photographic”, on which the sectors of the body with a lighter pigmentation would seem darker on fabric. An example of this distinction can be seen in the beard, which seems darker on the shroud at the end of the chin, where it touches fabric. The observers noticed that the details and reliefs of the man of the shroud are increased considerably on the negative photographic one. The results of Pia increased the interest for the shroud and caused new efforts to determine its origin.

The use in 1976 of analyzer VP-8 for " scanner" the image of the shroud of Turin produced image of a three-dimensional, single nature by its character, according to the author of the study.

History of the shroud

Part of its history making debate among the experts

History of Mandylion

Dated with precision between 1192 and 1195, is preserved at the National library of Budapest a miniature of a work known under the name of Codex Pray. It represents the oiling of the body of Christ during her setting in shroud, as well as the discovery of the empty Shroud by the Holy Women in the morning of Easter. In 1986, Doctor Yves Cartigny distinguished the marks in " clearly there; L " reversed fire former to 1357, but not dated with precision. Mandylion would be, according to this assumption, former to 1195.

The day before the setting with bag of the city by the Crusaders, in April 1204, the testimony of Robert de Clari, who saw the “sydoines it or nostres lords was envelepes”, is unambiguous.

In 1205, After the bag of Constantinople, Theodore Angel, a nephew of the Byzantine emperor deposited, protested near the Innocent Pope III, in a letter dated August 1st, 1205:

" The Venetian ones divided gold, the money and the ivory whereas the French made in the same way with the relics of the Saints and that the most crowned, the linen which covered our lord Jesus Christ after her death and before its resurrection. We know that the crowned objects are preserved the predatory ones in Venice, in France and in other places, the crowned linen with Athènes"

one can consider the historical course of the mandylion in the following way:

• from 30 to 57, one speaks about a " portrait of Jesus " in Édesse (Urfa).

• In 57, My' naked VI persecutes the Christians; the aforementioned portrait disappears and his trace is lost.
• In 525 there is a terrible flood with Édesse; during rebuilding works, one finds Mandylion hidden in the thickness of a wall.
• In August 944, Mandylion arrives at Constantinople.
• About 1025, one knows a portrait resembling Holy Shroud.
• on April 12th, 1204, the crusaders put at bag the town of Constantinople; Mandylion disappears.

Elements allowing to affirm or contradict that the shroud of Turin and Mandylion are the same object

A recent discovery made it possible to establish a possible bond between the shroud of Turin and Mandylion, so known under the name of shroud of Édesse: the sermon of Gregoire the Chief clerk, in 944, translated per Guscin Mark, mentioned representation of the whole body of Jesus and not only of his face.

Part of its history being the subject of a consensus

Champagne appearance

The shroud appears out of Champagne in 1357 with Lirey, where it is the subject of ostentations (presentations in public) under the authority of its owner, widow of the knight Geoffroy I {{er}} of Charny. No part makes it possible to date in a precise way acquisition of this shroud. The possession of this relic however marked the family of Charny, since she added to her weapons a pilgrim and an image of the Saint-Shroud. The mainly advanced assumption is this one: Othon of the Rock, crossed Fourth crusade, would have stolen it to the duke of Athens between 1204 and 1208, and sent to his/her father in 1208. His/her father living close to Besancon, this theory explains the origin of two other pieces of fabrics having also been called “Saint-Shrouds” (see Saint-Shroud of Besancon). The back-small-girl of Othon of the Rock, Jeanne de Vergy, marries Geoffroy de Charny in 1340, and thus makes pass the Shroud in the family of Charny. Marguerite de Charny, grand-daughter of Geoffroy de Charny, affirms as for it, in 1443, that it is his/her grandfather who conquered it in Athens at the time of one of his voyages.

However, Geoffroy de Charny wrote in April 1349 with the pope Clément VI to inform it of the construction of the church Sainte-Marie de Lirey, in thanks with the Holy Trinity, to which it allotted the success of his escape from the jails English, but without mentioning Relique. The collegiate church is completed in 1353, the shroud is deposited there in 1357, and Geoffroy de Charny dies in the battles of Poitiers (September 16th 1356).

Ostentations of this shroud occurred with the family of Charny between 1349 and 1356 last until in 1360. On this date, the bishop of Troyes Henri of Poitiers prohibits ostentations, considering that the shroud must be false, the Gospels by not making mention.
Jeanne de Vergy takes fear and then puts the shroud in safety in her strengthened castle of Montfort in 1360, it will remain there 28 years until her death in 1388.

The Champagne Shroud

Jeanne de Vergy, widow of Geoffroy de Charny, married in second Aymon weddings of Geneva, uncle of the pope Clément VII. The Pope authorizes his son to take again ostentations with Lirey in 1389 and imposes on the bishop of Troyes Pierre d' Arcis a silence eternal on the question following prohibition by this one to expose cloth under penalty of excommunication. Pierre d' Arcis does not obey and with King Charles VII calls some which revokes the authorization to expose. He writes then to the pope and addresses a report to him which informs him of discovered of its predecessor. This one had affirmed that the linen had been painted in order to attract crowd and to draw benefit from it. Pierre d' Arcis even affirms to have found the painter.

The clergy of Lirey refuses to obey its bishop, and calls some with the pope, who confirms the right to expose the shroud the January 6th 1390:

Finally that which will make ostentation will have to inform the people at the time of the strongest multitude and to say to high and understandable voice, any fraud ceasing, which the aforementioned figure or representation is not the true Shroud of Our-Lord, but who it is only one painting or a table of the Shroud.

Prohibition is also made by the pope with Pierre d' Arcis be opposed to the exposure funerary cloth, if this one is done according to what is prescribed by the decree.

June 1st, 1390, Clément VII publishes a new bubble which grants indulgences to the people who will visit the collegiate church of Lirey or was preserved the object.

Fearing for the conservation of the shroud (bands of brigands, the Grandes companies, devastate France), the canons of Lirey, who inherited the relic, entrust it to Marguerite de Charny, grand-daughter of Geoffroy de Charny.

Wanderings of the Shroud at the 15th century

In 1418, Humbert de Villersexel husband of Marguerite de Charny, count of the Rock, again placed the shroud in its castle of Montfort to protect it from the bands of plunderers and the One hundred Year old war. It then moved it with Saint-Hippolyte (Doubs), another of his strongholds. For died with Humbert de Villersexel in 1438, the canons of Lirey provided themselves in justice to force his wife to restore the relic, but Parliament of Dole and the court of Besancon gave reason to Marguerite de Charny, who travelled in various places with the Shroud, in particular with Liege, Geneva, Annecy, Paris, Borough-in-Bresse, Nice.

September 13rd 1452, it sells the relic with Anne de Lusignan, wife of the duke Louis Ier of Savoy, against the castle of Varambon. The Shroud is consequently preserved in a new church, the the Ste Chapelle of Chambéry, raised with the dignity of collegial by the pope Paul II. In 1464, the duke agrees to pay a revenue with the canons of Lirey against the abandonment of the continuations. After 1471, the Shroud is frequently moved, with Verceil, Turin, Ivrée, Suse, Chambéry, Avigliano, Rivoli and Pignerol. A description is given by two sextons of the Ste Chapelle, in the inventory of the June 6th 1483: wrapped in a red silk cloth, and preserved in a velvet trunk crimson, decorated incrustations of money, and closed by a gold key.

16th century at the 20th century

In 1532 Holy Shroud was taken in a fire, in Chambéry, in the Sainte Vault where it was deposited. It was withdrawn fire whereas the money trunk in which it rested started to melt. The shroud was then folded in 48 thicknesses, and was burned at certain places. Where the fabric was perforated, Clarisses, in 1534, bent more or less triangular parts of aspect (in white on the positive photographs, in black on the negative ones).

Since 1578, it was with Turin, where the Dukes of Savoy transferred their capital in 1562. Last king d' Italie, Humbert, made of it gift with the Pape in 1983.

In 1997, it is saved of a fire which devastates the cathedral of Turin.

Scientific studies and controversies

The STURP (1978-1981)

History

In 1978, a group of more than one score of scientists and enquiring American of the STURP, the “Shroud off Turin Research Project”, assisted of two Italian, Giovanni Rigi (microanalyst) and Luigi Gonella, (to advise scientific of the Cardinal of Turin) carried out during 120 hours of the thorough analyzes of the object and samplings of surface. First scientific study of great width, officially recognized like such by the the Vatican, it with the characteristic to have analyzed the object on the spot with the seven conveyed tons of material of the United States for the occasion.
Professor Baima Bollone, director of the mortuary of Turin, also accepted samples to determine if the substance constituting the carmine spots pale were blood.

Techniques used

Various advanced techniques were employed to analyze old fabric: X-rays, Fluorescence, Infra-red microchemistry, spectra and Ultraviolet, optical Microscopy. Thousands of photographs were also prises.
Starting from the collected data, a total of more than 100.000 work hours in laboratory were necessary to exploit them.

Conclusions

The conclusions of the study were given at the time of the presentation of the final report in 1981:

1. the data collected by the techniques mentioned above exclude the possibility that painting is the technique at the origin of the formation of the image. That contradicted the thesis developed by the bishop of Troyes Pierre d' Arcis 600 years earlier. The image of the body is formed by monochromic and surface coloring flax fibers (a depth of about 40 microns) which result from a process of oxidizing dehydration and conjugation of the structure of the microfibrils of the flax. It is the more or less important presence of microfibrils faded which will give the more or less dark aspect of the image of the body.
2. the analysis of the levels of density of coloring of the image of the face, using an instrument of NASA, made it possible to highlight information of three-dimensional nature, at the origin of the property similar to that of negative photographic already observed in the past.
3. the combination of information of nature physical, chemical, biological and medical did not make it possible to explain how the image was formed and which phenomenon generated it.

Publications of the results

Work of the STURP gave place to the publication of a score of standard commodities in scientific magazines at reading panel.

A medieval forgery for Walter McCrone

Walter McCrone (+2002), consulting STURP and director of an institute bearing his name, was the first with being able to examine the 32 samples taken on the shroud in 1978. Universally famous specialist in the microscope with polarized light, it is also known to have been an adversary of the authenticity of the “chart of the Vinland”. The study of the particles under the microscope with polarized light (mainly) enabled him to draw the following conclusions: it is about a painting made up of red blood stone pigments and of vermilion and the alleged bloodstains are made up of the same substances coated in a compound containing collagen. Its discoveries on the shroud were published in the newspaper of its institute (Microscope) following the dispute by the STURP of its conclusions and with its resignation of the group.

Others however believe to have identified blood of type AB. For their contradictors, it remains to be seen if it is really possible to determine with certainty the nature of a blood starting from weak very old traces. They also advance that nobody knows the blood group of Jesus and that a counterfeiter can have perfectly imagined to introduce traces of blood into his composition to make truer.

Techniques of reproduction considered

In contradiction with the study of STURP, others advance that it is technically possible for a painter to carry out a negative print on fabric without letting appear traces of brushes. The print also could be realized in another way. Indeed, this aspect was easily reproduced on several occasions by experimenters starting from a coated low-relief of a dye. A simple covering of the model by a wet linen followed by a plugging then makes it possible to constitute a print into negative completely realistic on fabric.

Thus, the review Science & Vie carried out (see N° of July 2005) a counterpart of the face of the shroud with means which existed with the Middle Ages. With this intention, it coated a low-relief of a pigment, then covered this low-relief with a fabric which it then plugged. The negative image of the low relief was thus perfectly reproduced. This technique was in the possibilities of the men of the Middle Ages, (time of the invention of printing works) even if they could not imagine that the photo technique could (600 years later) restore the appearance of the positive image.

However until today, all the attempts to reproduce a similar copy of the Shroud of Turin in all the detected characteristics failed.

The carbon dating (1988-1989)

Preamble

The dating radiocarbon is not a technique without fault. Dr. Willi Wölfli, director of the laboratory of dating radiocarbon of the Federal Polytechnic school of Zurich, which took share with the dating of the Shroud of Turin, declared: " The C-14 method is not safe from big mistakes of dating when not-obvious problems exist related to the taken samples. The existence of significant unspecified errors occurs fréquemment" .

Development of the protocol of measurement

It is into 1984 that the STURP proposed a multi-field protocol to carry out the dating with the radiocarbon of fabric: it included/understood the catch of six samples, their analyzes physicochemical and their dating in C14. The methods SMA (mass spectrometry with accelerator) and that of the meters would be used according to the technology adopted by the six laboratories selected.

In October 1986, after a few days of consultations with the interested parties, the archbishop of Turin, Mgr Ballestrero, adopted the following program: seven laboratories were retained (five by SMA, two by method of the meters). A specialist universally recognized in old textiles was going to supervise the taking away. Of physicochemical analyzes of the samples would succeed before destruction. Each laboratory was going to receive a sample of the shroud and two reference samples and a false sample. Three official organizations were going to go guaranteeing of the good progress of the study as well as treatment and communication of the results.

One year later, a deeply modified protocol and much less demanding barrel announced by the Secretary of State of Jean-Paul II. Four laboratories were excluded, only method SMA was retained. British Museum was going to supervise only the procedure. The preliminary physicochemical studies to control the samples before their destruction were abandoned.

Taking away and dating

Early on April 21st, 1988, started the operations of sampling under the direction of Giovanni Riggi di Numana. Four hours were necessary to decide site of the taking away of only one and single sample. The choice was made on a zone in edge of the shroud of Turin, adjacent with the site of the taking away carried out in 1973. The taken sample was divided into two parts; the second part was cut in three pieces, for each laboratory. Considering one of these pieces presented a weight lower than 50 Mg (minimum weight for the analyzes), one associated a piece of the first to him left. One placed finally the samples in small steel containers. One proceeded in the same way with the three counter samples. The operation of dating by the laboratories of the University of Oxford, the University of Arizona and the Federal Polytechnic school of Zurich could start.

Conclusion of the analysis

Advertisements of the result

October 13rd, 1988, the Ballestrero Cardinal announces in a press conference the results of the dating transmitted by Prof Tite of British Museum. The average concentration in C14 of the flax gives a medieval date located between 1260 and 1390 with a probability of 95%. The statute of the " Suaire" saint; " was henceforth that; of marvellous a icône" according to the words of the cardinal, and a medieval creation for the major part of the public opinion.

In London, the following day, Dr. Tite, assisted of Dr. Hedges (Oxford) and Prof Hall (Oxford and member of the board of management of British Museum) announced their result, corroborating the advertisement of the day before.

The report published in the review " Nature"

Four months later appeared in the prestigious scientific magazine " Nature" a report of the study. Contrary to waiting of many scientists, the article published in the nature magazine did not mention rough measurements of the three laboratories, nor the details of the calculations carried out by British Museum. This information thereafter never was not transmitted or was published.

The table below summarizes the results as published in table 2 of the article. The values are in years before 1950, year under review. (*) The level of significativity, rising from the value of the Khi2 test, is the probability that the difference of the average dates between the laboratories is due to the only statistical margins of error of measurements of each laboratory.

See also: Controversy on the C14 dating of the shroud of Turin

Study of pollens

In 1973 and 1978, max Frei, Swiss criminologist, carried out a study of the Pollen S to determine the areas where the shroud would have remained. These conclusions tended to show that on the 58 found plant species, a majority of pollens (45) were originating in Jerusalem and of the surroundings. These results were criticized on several occasions because regarded as too precise and not easily interpretable. Indeed, according to the remark of Guy Jalut, professor of Palynology to the University of Toulouse, how to explain the absence of the Oak and the olive-tree, abundant species in the Mediterranean regions? Lastly, the palynologists (specialists in pollens) specify that it is impossible to recognize a plant specie starting from its pollen. Only its kind is identifiable and even less its origin. The taking away of pollen examined by two other teams showed that all the grains were covered with calcite, mineral deposited during washing following the fire of Chambéry, but not those presented by max Frei. In front of a micropaleontologist who was astonished by the extraordinary conservation of pollens that max Frei presented, this one admitted that it presented photographs of reference. Max Frei had just accomplished a voyage to Istambul, Urfa and Jerusalem in company of Ian Wilson for to collect a series of plants characteristic of the Middle East . For memory, max Frei examined the Carnets of Hitler and declared them authentic. No scientific article published forever on this subject and any index could be brought concerning the source of the shroud.

Other technical considerations

The image formed on the shroud is that of an athletic measuring 178 to 180 cm in height, bearded man and with the hair plaits. In addition to the assumption of sprinkling by means of a dye (Ocre or Vermillon), it could be formed by one sweated made up of blood, which arrives when a man is subjected to a Stress violent one and important, such as that caused by the Torture. However traces of vermilion were identified in the zones of the print and the mode of impression is now well included/understood (see low).

The body carries the trace of Flagellation S and a blow carried by a knife between the fifth and the sixth coast. This trace does not make it possible to know how nor with which weapon this blow was carried. The eyes are in the shape of disc, and could be covered with coins carrying a Greek inscription, with an spelling error (a forgery numismatist) and representing an owl (like the currencies of Athens).

The forger would have even managed to create effects to work out his forgery which the current techniques manage to reproduce only with many easy ways. It remains that the representation lets appear some naivety as the provision head-digs faces ventral and dorsal connected by a specific contact what is not possible if it is about a shroud having covered the head with a corpse. Indeed, the image passing by cranium should be continuous.

Another characteristic is the representation of hair surrounding the face: left reversed U-shaped roll which is regarded as significant representations diagrammatic and naive that one can observe on the low-reliefs means-âgeux. The hair of a man who perspired and was abused cannot be presented thus. More especially as this hair of a man (living or corpse) lying on the back, is obligatorily falling backwards what excludes clear cutting from the neck that one sees on the dorsal face.

Other proportions refer to the medieval iconography of the 14th century: the axis of the eyes is to two thirds of the head, instead of the medium of the face. The phalanges are extremely long. The hands recovering the stomach, the arms, too behind, are inordinately long: unfolded, the hands would touch the knees.

Finally if the ventral face contrasted by photography is indeed of a seizing relief, the dorsal face is in underlined flat tint of a peripheral feature. The fabric of the dorsal face being spread out naturally over the ground under the corpse should show only surfaces of contact like the scapulas, the buttocks, etc

Why this polemic lasts

Some ideological aspects

At the end of the summer 1988 the carbon dating returned its verdict of a shroud of the Middle Ages, and on October 13rd of the same year the cardinal-archbishop of Turin, Mgr Ballestrero, announces officially the conclusions of this dating. However today still, of the groups continue to defend a contrary position. However in spite of extremely many and long attempts of the opponents to this dating to discredit it, well few of these criticisms were considered to be sufficiently serious to be the subject of an official publication. A serious study, that of Rogers, call into question the representativeness of the dated sample; she was refuted by other scientists of which specialists in carbon-14. Rogers answers in return that it had accepted the results of the radiodatation on the sample, but doubt that Nickell, one of its detractors, had competence to correctly interpret its method of analysis by spectrometry and thus to call it into question. Since Rogers died, it had declared that it had not studied samples (because there are not some any more) but had not worked on an extrapolation, which returns the counter-checking of its impossible analysis

To date no specialist in carbon-14 reconsiders this dating. Consequently, for those which regard this dating as an irrefutable proof, very polemical fate of the scientific discipline to enter the field of the ideological controversy, which is summarized with an exchange of religious convictions, and even policies. Thus some of the credits in favor of the shroud are famous being close relations of mobilities of extreme right-hand side: their objective would be to refute the dating to show that science and the official mediums are controlled by occult capacities judeo-maconnic such that the monk Bonnet-Eymard evokes it which seek at all costs to discredit Christianity (see the Théorie of the plot). For proof in France, the near total of the members of the CIELT, French association formed shortly after the carbon dating and of which the goal is to continue research, is close to these mobilities: catholic associations traditionalists, organizations of extreme-right-hand side. As follows: - Daniel Raffard de Brienne, honorary president of Rebirth Catholic, which wrote several books on the shroud (the last denounces the misinformation on the subject) and questions the theory darwinienne of the evolutionism - Alain Rostand, catholic vice-president of Rebirth - Philippe Bourcier de Carbon (quoted in reference in an article of Van Haelst), member of the Scientific advice of the FN - Marcel Alonso, candidate FN with the cantonal last in South-west - Jacques Oswald, member of integrist association catholic and anti-abortion Action family and school - fire Georges Salet, author of many works creationnists - Jean-Maurice Clercq, member of the Center ofStudies and of Futurology on Science, association French creationnist. Aaron Upinsky, one of the source most important of the partisans of the authenticity of the shroud also wrote several books on the misinformation and the censure in the media which are systematically included in the congresses of Front National and published in the national bookstore Organe militant of the face. Out of France, the main leaders of STURP are also members of the executive committee of the Guilde of the Saint-Shroud , an association affiliated to the religious congregation of the Rédemptoristes, " the part is degraded. What is fundamental it is from now on its safeguarding. It is about a work of art". Moreover, he thinks that it is probable, that in spite of the severe precautions that it would be necessary to take, there would be people who would continue to doubt. Thus he declares that, already with the first dating of 1988, the operational precautions exceeded very largely the scientific practices on the matter, which did not prevent many criticisms.

Passion between the two camps remains sharp. For example, the emission " Faith taken with the mot" , on catholic television channel French KTO, diffused on Sunday, March 11, 2007 a report on the Shroud. Presented by the exégète Governed Burnet, this emission defended the thesis of a medieval work of art. However, after its diffusion, this emission was not reprogrammed with the antenna (the repeat broadcast lasts one week in normal weather) and also disappeared from Internet site of the chain, where it was consultable on line. The catholic chain explained why this withdrawal was due to insulting and threatening emails sent by integrist televiewers. It, thereafter reintroduced the emission on its site but by also adding on the site an emission defending the unfavourable thesis

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