The war Seven Year old is a major conflict of the 18th century often compared with the First World War by the fact that it was held on many theaters of operations and results in an important rebalancing of the European powers. From there was born the British Empire, spaces dominating world throughout the 19th century. From there almost disappeared the the First space colonial French, dominating space world throughout S.

This conflict opposed mainly the France to the Great Britain on the one hand, the Austria with the Prussia on the other hand. However, by the play of alliances and opportunisms, the majority of the European countries and their colonies will be found in war. The beginning of the war is dated officially from spring 1757 (Hungary by Frederic II attacks) although the confrontation began earlier in the colonies from North America before degenerating into open war in Europe.

Causes

The control of Silesia

In continental Europe, the principal zone of friction is the Silesia. It is a rich and populated province whose conquest had been carried out in 1742 by the Prussia at the expense of the Austria at the time of the war of succession of Austria. If the any young person Marie-Therese de Habsbourg obtained well to be confirmed on the throne of Vienna, with the title of archduchess of Austria, queen of Hungary and Bohemia (his/her husband François of Lorraine carrying the title of German emperor), on the other hand Frederic II makes a success of his knack on the Silesia. In 1754, Marie-Therese was still not solved with the loss of this province.

Colonies of North America

On their side, the French worried for a long time about the aimings of England on their colonial field (News-France, the Antilles, the Indies). The larval conflict between France and England turns around several points:

• the possession of the immense territory of the Ohio (located between the big lakes, the Gulf of Mexico, the the Appalachian Mountains and the the Mississippi)
• competition in the juicy trade of skins to the detriment of the respect of the treaties with the various Amerindian tribes
• the British fear to see the influence of the catholics growing via the French colonies and the presence of missionaries in News-France
• the fishing zone with broad of Newfoundland is very full of fish and the fishing rights are disputed by all and sundry.

The most crucial point is without question the control of the valley of the Ohio. This territory is coveted by the French, the British but also the Iroquois. The British base their claim on the treated of Utrecht in 1713: this treaty stipulates that the Iroquois are subjects of the British crown. However as the Ohio is regarded as an ancestral ground iroquoise, the British consider of them the rightful owners. But concretely this zone is under the control of the French thanks to the presence of several forts.

Preparations

Geopolitical situation

Great Britain

Great Britain has already a very wide colonial empire, very populated (contrary to the French colonies) and which brings back much money to the crown. For now several centuries, the United Kingdom (and its predecessor, the England) have not had any more a powerful army and, in spite of the English civil war with the previous century and the creation of the New model army by Oliver Cromwell and Thomas Fairfax, the British army remains of small size and very directed towards fire. It is mainly used to maintain peace interior and for the conquest and the pacification of the colonies. The strong point of the English is the already famous Royal Navy. As Mahan explained it later, it is the base of the English power which makes it possible to control the maritime trade, to control and conquer the colonies and, militarily speaking, to move the border of Great Britain on the coasts of its adversaries and not on his.

However, the Hanover is a strategic spine in the foot of the British government: the kings of Hanover reached the British crown since George I {{er}} (1714). Politically, the British cannot thus naturally not give up it but, in the event of conquest of Hanover by France, the concessions will be necessary to recover it. The British thus seek before each conflict to find an ally continental to help them to protect Hanover. This ally will be to be Prussia followed by part of the German States.

Out of Europe, the principal zone of friction of Great Britain with France is in North America. The war of succession of Spain enabled him to take the control of part of the Acadie, Hudson Bay and of Newfoundland but the conflict is not regulated definitively. In India, the situation is also conflict but the two colonial powers have only Comptoir S and, on such a distant theater of operations, they must play with the very changeable allied Indians.

France

The France is in an uncomfortable situation as much in its colonies that in Europe. During the war of succession of Austria, it did not obtain anything from its alliance with Prussia if it is not a status quo , but its finances were tested hard by this useless war. The separate peace concluded by the Prussians in 1745 and their alliance with the British in 1756 strongly opposed France and, encouraged by its court (whose Marquise of Pompadour, favorite of the king), Louis XV is resigned to an inversion of alliance to give up Prussia and to be combined with Austria. This treaty of alliance, finalized in May 1756 and named Treated of Versailles, aims at thwarting the rise to power of Prussia and puts an end to several centuries enmity with Vienna. The situation in North America also is very tended and worries the French government: French immigration, too limited, does not make it possible France to ensure a real control and an effective defense of its colonial empire. The losses of territories making following the War of succession of Spain have amputee seriously the French possessions but the French ambition remains to extend its domination on the American continent. In India, the preceding confrontations turned rather to the advantage of the French but the Indian princes are prompt to change camp and thus to reverse existing balance.

Prussia

Prussia is the emergent power of the 18th century. Under the crook of Frederic I, then of Frederic II, it is essential like a major actor in Central Europe. Having to defend of the parcelled out territories, it has human and industrial means limited, but its army very powerful and is well involved. Frederic II is moreover one excellent strategist and tactician. The sights of Prussia on the Silesia were crowned success at the time of the war of succession of Austria where the army made wonders vis-a-vis the Austrian troops. This success does not make forget in Prussia its delicate position and, being itself allied to France at the end of the war, it turns from now on to Great Britain which accepts well readily this alliance. However, even with English subsidies, the Prussian army is in numerical inferiority and delicate strategic position vis-a-vis its adversaries.

Austria

Austria of the 18th century is especially insulated diplomatically. In 1713, Charles VI, emperor of Austria, makes adopt the Pragmatic Sanction in order to make sure the transmission of the throne to elder of his/her daughters in the absence of a male heir. In 1716, the son of Charles VI dies before reaching the one year age, and after the death of Charles VI, on October 20th 1740, Marie-Therese inherits the imperial crown. Unfortunately, several countries, whose France, want to benefit from this distorsion to the tradition salienne to dispute the Austrian power. The war of succession of Austria which follows concludes by two treaties for Austria: with the Treated of Breslau, she recognizes the loss of Silesia to the profit of Prussia and, with the treated of Aachen, she loses the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla. Not being able to resign itself to this loss, not only because Silesia is a rich province, but especially for a question of prestige, Austria wants ardently to take again this territory and, if possible, to humiliate Prussia.

Russia

In Russia, the tsarina Elisabeth, after having conquered the capacity in 1741, had entrusted the direction of the country to the vice-chancellor Alexis Pétrovich Bestoujev-Rioumine. This one was an enthusiastic lawyer of alliance with the British and the Austrians. During the war of succession of Austria, Russia had succeeded in leaving itself the conflict without damage but one of its principal concerns was the rise to power of Prussia which she wished retransformer in small impotent German State. Accordingly, the alliance of Prussia with Great Britain is a bad news and requires to re-examine the diplomatic position of Russia: it is thus quite naturally that Russia lines up in the camp free-Austrian involving with it the Sweden.

The spiral of the war

In comparison with the former power struggle, the year 1756 sees a complete change of alliances in Europe: Great Britain and Prussia are combined against France, Austria and Russia. Once this finished set of diplomatic chairs musical, the protagonists put themselves immediately in battle order to finish what was left in building site in 1748: possession of Silesia for Austria and the North-American competition for France and Great Britain.

With regard to North America, the larval conflict is already begun since 1743 and does not ask much to burst in total conflict. Several conflicts around the forts Oswego and Carillon will push Great Britain to be reacted by setting up an not-official blockade `' (since without declaration of war) on the colonies of North America. In reaction, France decides to be caught at the naval base Minorque and to threaten the Hanover of them. Prussia, feeling the tension to go up, and knowing by its spies that Austria and Russia mobilize their army, decides to take the initiative and attacks the Saxony. The seven year old war can officially start.

The European theater of operation

The war in Europe will be held on two rather distinct faces: the Central Europe on a side with Silesia like theater and Western Europe with the Franco-British naval confrontation and the battle for Hanover.

Prussian and French successes of 1756

In Central Europe, Frederic II is in position of inferiority but can count on a formidable army. Its governing idea is to benefit from its central position to demolish the 3 allied ones in a way distinct and on a ground from its choice. The Saxony represents a first target of choice among the allies of Austria: it is a rich country but with a weak army. Once the decision taken, the Prussian army melts on the army saxonne and demolishes it with the Bataille of Lobositz on October 1st: Saxony falls under the cut from Prussia without blow to férir but in addition to time than envisaged and there will not be other offensives for this year with the arrival of the hiver.
During this time, France takes the offensive in the Mediterranean by aiming at the English possession of Minorque (where the great naval base of Port-Mahon is). A French task force unloads and besieges the city. The admiral Byng is sent in reinforcement but it is made beat by the marquis of Galissonnière on May 20th. Byng will be carried out for this defeat and Minorque will fall to the hands from the French. In north, the French Army, under the orders of Soubise, prepares to advance towards Hanover and Silesia.

1757: Frederic II of Prussia to his apogee

Frederic, once the defeat of consumed Saxony, turns to the Bohemia and leaves to the attack Prague, defended by the Austrian army ordered by the Brown marshal and Charles of Lorraine. The confrontation is bloody but the Prussians assert and besiege Prague (May 6th). With its principal army corps besieged in Prague, Austria is in difficulty but the marshal Daun gathers a new army and walk towards Prague. Frederic goes to their meeting but, benefitting from an advantageous position, the Austrians demolish the Prussians with the Bataille of Kolin on June 18th, kind Frederic with raising the seat and reprocessing in Silesia. Prussia finds itself then in a delicate position with the Austrian army which advances on it South since Bohemia and the French Army newcomer of the West. The Russian army is essential moreover on the Bataille of Large-Jägersdorf but does not benefit from its advantage to invade Eastern Prussia. Frederic II then decides to concentrate his forces and to attack his enemies one by one. He turns initially to the French and severely demolishes them with the Bataille of Rossbach on November 5th. Then, it gathers its army and sets out again towards the east where it crushes the Austrian army with the Bataille of Leuthen, on December 5th.
The French offensive towards Hanover, henceforth directed by the marshal of Estrées to the head of an army united of: 100000 men, progresses well vis-a-vis Anglo-hanovriens. The French numerical superiority ends up being essential on the Bataille of Hastenbeck on July 26th, and Hanover capitule.
In reaction, and with an aim of diverting the French Army of Hanover, William Pitt Old the organizes the British strategy on the continent around “descents”, of naval forwardings with unloading of troops and raids in allied territories (this strategy is not without pointing out that, much more successful, of English at the beginning of the Guerre One hundred Year old). The first of these forwardings is organized with the autumn and aims Rochefort, the large French arsenal. September 8th, John Mordaunt and Edward Hawke leave Great Britain and, on September 23rd, take the island of Aix, but Rochefort is impregnable and forwarding turns over bredouille on October 1st.

1758: Stagnation of the situation

After the victory of Leuthen, Frederic goes down towards the South to the continuation from the Austrian army but does not manage to get rid definitively of this adversary. However, during this time, the Russian and Swedish armies pass to the attack. Frederic is obliged to return on his ground to face there. Its offensive against the Russian army culminates with the Bataille of Zorndorf on August 25th. This bloody battle does not give the victory to any the camps but makes it possible Frederic to prevent the Russians and the Austrians to meet. Against the Swedes, Frederic knows a less happy fate while not managing to take the top with the Bataille of Tornow, on September 25th. The situation of Frederic passes then from dangerous to catastrophic: October 14th, with the Battle of Hochkirch, Frederic is beaten clearly by the Austrians.

After Rossbach, the French Army will undergo a second shock. Indeed, Great Britain refuses to ratify the capitulation of Hanover and decides to continue the combat. A new army thus will be formed with the orders of Ferdinand of Brunswick-Lüneburg (without any British troop: mercenaries are stipendiés by London) and, in six weeks, the French Army is pushed back of Hanover. The blow is hard and shows the incapacity of the French Army, in numerical superiority, to impose itself against a more mobile enemy and more decided.

In parallel, the British army, making a second attack, unloads in bay of Cancale on June 5th and progresses towards Saint-Malo. The arrival of a French army of help prevents the British from taking the city and they can only burn the boats of the port. The British army re-embarks thereafter and returns to Great Britain after having briefly cherished the idea to unload with Cherbourg (the bad weather did not allow it). Not discouraged by the two preceding failures, Pitt organizes the third forwarding for Cherbourg. Supported by a naval bombardment, the English army unloads and captures Cherbourg. After having plundered the city, the English army takes again the sea and again unloads on September 3rd close to Saint-Malo to try to take the city. It is a new failure. The bad weather forces the fleet to seek a port more sheltered with Saint-Cast and the army must join it with foot. The intervention of the French Army threatens a time forwarding but the sacrifice of the rear-guard under the orders of the Général Dury makes it possible the English army to re-embark.

1759: France and Prussia in difficulties

The year 1759 is terrible for Prussia which sees the defeats accumulating and its invaded territory of any share: with the Battle of Paltzig, on July 23rd, Von Wedel east demolishes by the Russians, with the Bataille of Kunersdorf, on August 12th, Frederic is also beaten by the Russians, to the Bataille of Maxen on November 21st, the totality of the body of the general Von Finck goes to the Austrians. Prussia is at the edge of collapse and Frederic II considers the suicide. Nevertheless, a bad agreement between the Russian generals and Austrians prevent them from closing the war definitively, while Frederic always resists.

In spite of the defeat of the previous year, the French Army takes again the offensive against Hanover. At the beginning of June, an army of: 80000 men with the orders of Contades and Broglie penetrates in Hanover. The army of Ferdinand of Brunswick-Lüneburg counting only: 35000 men, this one seeks before very dodging the French Army while threatening its lines of communication. However, at the beginning of July, Broglie manages to take the town of Minden, important center of supply and thus provides to the French Army a fulcrum to reconquer Hanover. Ferdinand must react. It gathers its army then and attacks Minden on August 1st. The battle shows a French defeat. In parallel, after the defeat of Kunersdorf, Ferdinand must send reinforcements to help Frederic and sees themselves in impossibility of offensively continuing the countryside against the French.

During this same period, a plan is worked out by the French to try to invade Great Britain. For this purpose, an army is gathered with the mouth of the Loire and the fleets of Brest and Toulon must ensure the control of the seas. Unfortunately for the French, the fleet of Toulon is beaten by the British fleet of Boscawen to the Bataille of Lagos (August 19th) and, with the battles of Quiberon (November 20th), the admiral Edward Hawke demolishes the fleet of Brest.

Of 1760 with 1762: The Miracle of the House of Brandebourg

After one year 1759 catastrophic, Prussia thus continues to resist. The defeat of Landeshut (June 23rd), the catch of Marburg and the Poméranie as well as the loss of Glatz in Silesia maigrement are maigrement compensated by the 2 victories of Liegnitz (August 15th) and Torgau (November 3rd). The Russian and Austrian armies even briefly occupied Berlin on October 9th.
In the west, the scenario of the previous year is repeated: the French Army, higher of number, launches the offensive but is seen thwarted by the mobility of allied and the year is completed without notable projection.

In 1761, being given the strategic situation and the exhaustion of its army (not more: 100000 remaining men), Frederic II is constrained to pass to a purely defensive strategy: it is finished by it victories of Rossbach, Leuthen or even Liegnitz where the Prussian army had known to show its formidable skilful capacities. Accordingly, it strengthens the position of Schweidnitz with an important force. But, benefitting from a reduction of defenses, the Austrians manage to take this place.

1762 was to be the year of collapse for Prussia: Frederic II does not have any more but: 60000 men under its orders and Great Britain threatens to stop its financing. But, on January 5th, the tsarina Elisabeth dies. It is a true miracle for Frederic II because the successor of the tsarina, Pierre III of Russia, is prussophile: he signs a peace treaty immediately and leaves isolated Austria. Reinvigorated by this reversal of unhoped-for fortune, the Prussian army pushes back the Austrian army of Silesia after the Bataille of Freiberg (October 29th). For Prussia, bloodless, it is the unhoped-for outcome of the war.

The American theater of operations

In 1754, France had a vast empire in the shape of crescent which extended from the area of Canada and the Big lakes to banks of the Gulf of Mexico. It had succeeded in being combined with the many ones and powerful Indian tribes like the Iroquois.
A chain of forts and stations joined together Canada with the possessions of the south wedging the Thirteen colonies English of the Atlantic coast. The British possessions were thus isolated in the east from the the Appalachian Mountains and the American colonists could not progress towards the ouest.
The North-American part of the conflict opposed England and its colonies of America to the French and to their Indian allies. For the english-speaking besides, it is not called “war of Seven Years” but French and Indian war , indicating well that it concerns also the Indians, even if it is before a whole conflict between powers européennes.
In the Caribbean, the French have a certain number of islands which are of great economic importance because they provide many Sucre and of spice S and Vanille; the British have also islands, but the principal power (declining) of the area is the Spain.

The beginning of the conflict in North America in 1754 and 1755

The first skirmishes of the conflict take place in the area of the current site of Pittsburgh. Virginiens, under the orders of a young grower, George Washington, raise first of all there a fort, the Fort Prince George. French dislodges and builds about it in the place Fort Duquesne. The English attempts to take again the fort will be failures. In reaction, Great Britain decides to send two regiments in reinforcements like: 10000£ and 2000 mousquets for raising troops coloniales.
In parallel, June 19th with the July 10th 1754, in Albany, the representatives of the English colonies meet to discuss an alliance with the Tribu S Indians but also to decide organization of the colonies. A treaty of non-aggression will be concluded with the tribes Iroquois are but without much effect in the conflict which will follow.

The year 1755 sees the skirmishes between the French and the British to multiply. The principal zone of confrontation is, as envisaged, the valley of the Ohio, asserted by the two protagonists. The principal action is the attack of the Fort the Niagara by the British which shows a échec.
In the area of Strong Duquesne, a confrontation opposes 2000 English soldiers (including 450 colonists) with 900 French and Indians. Combatant with tactics “with European” (tightened order, column of battle…), the British are overcome by the French who use local methods close to the guerilla (dispersed order, shooting and fold).

During this time, in Nova Scotia, British territory since the treated of Utrecht in 1713, the governor Charles Lawrence wants to regulate the problem of the Acadiens, colonists of French origin and thus suspects in his eyes in the event of conflict with the France. He then decides to oblige the Acadian ones to subject itself to the crown what implies to be able to be useful in the British army. After their refusal, the Acadian ones were driven out their grounds by the army and the English colonists and took refuge for certain numbers in France or with the Canada. A great part was also distributed of force in the various English colonies of the time. A majority of their descendants went thereafter to be installed on the grounds of Louisiana to give rise to the community of the Cajun S. This episode particularly tragic of the American history bears the name of the Grand Disturbance. The confrontation also becomes extensive at the maritime level between the French navy which want to protect the access to the Nouvelle France and to supply its colonists and the Royal Navy British which wants to found a blockade.

French successes of 1756 and 1757

In the climbing in progress, the two camps decide to name a commander-in-chief in preparation for the confrontation to come: for English, it will be the general John Campbell, count de Loudon, and for the French Louis-Joseph de Montcalm. May 18th, Great Britain formally declares the war in France following the Prussian attack against Saxony: it is the official beginning of the seven year old war. Whereas France concentrates above all on its European strategy, England wants to benefit from this conflict to regulate the North-American conflict definitively and to affirm its seizure on all the continent, of the Hudson Bay until Antilles.
As of its arrival, Montcalm realizes that its first concern is to preserve the communication between the Canada (News-France), nerve center of News-France and Ohio, object of the territorial conflict. However this communication is threatened by the presence of strong English of Oswego, on bank of the Lake Ontario. Quickly carried out before the British cannot organize themselves, forwarding on Oswego is a success and the fort is completely shaven.

In 1757, the British reinforcements start to flow with the instruction to leave to the offensive with like strategic objective the catch the fortress Louisbourg. This fortress, located at the mouth of the the St. Lawrence, order as well the access to Quebec as the very rich fishing zones off the coast. Loudon then directs its army towards Halifax to Nova Scotia and awaits the intervention of the navy there. But the British fleet having taken delay, three squadrons French gather in Louisbourg and block the intervention of the marine. The English army hesitates and, the season advancing, cannot hope any more to conduct a campaign: Loudon then decides to reprocess towards New York.
During that time, Montcalm, benefitting from the immobilization of the English army in its countryside towards Louisbourg, continues to reinforce the Franco-British border on the level with the Big lakes. After Strong Oswego, it attacked the strong William-Henry with the southern point of the Lac Champlain. The resistance of the colonel Munro was heroic, but, without hope of reinforcement, the place was taken and brûlée.
The year 1757 is still finished with the advantage of the French. William Pitt Old the, British Prime Minister, then decides to name James Wolfe as commander of the British forces.

English inversion of 1758

The reinforcements continue to arrive British side and Navy manages to set up an effective blockade which prohibits any reinforcement French side. The British offensive will be carried out according to three axes:

• Louisbourg
• Strong Chime
• Strong Duquesne

In July, the general Abercromby, new general-in-chief of the British armies, is started with an army of 7000 regular and 9000 colonial in direction of the lake Champlain with the firm intention to be caught some in Fort Chime. Montcalm then makes converge its small army of 3000 men towards the fort to stop them. The battles of strong Chime sees the British troops advancing in order tightened towards the French troops which decimate them by their fire. This battle shows a clear French victory and the British advance in this direction is stoppée.
Nevertheless, the British leaders, conscious of their numerical superiority and the length of the border, launched in parallel an offensive towards Ohio and another towards Louisbourg. August 27th, having only 100 men of garrison vis-a-vis the 2000 men of the captain Bradstreet, Fort Frontenac is taken. It is an hard blow because this fort is a center of important supply of the French in this zone. At the end of October, the English are caught some with the Fort Duquesne and take easily it (it will be famous Fort Pitt, current Pittsburgh). On the Atlantic coast, a combined action of the army and navy make it possible to the British to unload an army of: 14600 soldiers in the south of Louisbourg. After a six week campaign, the garrison of Louisbourg goes to the English on July 26th. A third offensive is carried out in November in direction of Fort Duquesne but the British discover that the place was given up by the French. They invest this place and build the Fort Pitt.

The year thus finishes clearly in favor of the British: if they did not progress in their conquest of Canada, they nevertheless took possession of the border and especially completely isolated News-France with the catch from Louisbourg. They thus have all the charts in hand to launch out to the attack the following year.

The catch of Quebec in 1759

The British offensives multiply for `to clean' the zones given up by the French: all the forts of the valley of Ohio are taken, Fort Chime falls and the Lac George becomes a British base in preparation for the future offensives on Quebec. In the tread, the lake Champlain is conquered but the season is advanced too much to push even more towards North and Montreal. Along the the St. Lawrence, after the catch of Louisbourg, the British have a formidable base of attack and will not delay to use it. The June 21st, the British fleet arrives for Quebec with an imposing army. The seat begins the July 12th but the fortress is firmly defended by: 15000 men and resists savagely. In the night of the 12 with the September 13rd, the British succeed in unloading an army in a not defended zone and force Montcalm to fight battle. At the time of the battles of the plains of Abraham, James Wolfe, the British commander, is killed, but the French forces are beaten and Montcalm is mortally wounded. The garrison of Quebec goes to the British the September 18th. The French Army is not destroyed yet but any hope of victory has disparu.
The same year, a British forwarding takes possession of the island of the Guadeloupe in the the Caribbean.

The catch of Montreal in 1760

The winter was hard for the British garrison of Quebec and a French offensive, carried out by Levis makes briefly take again hope with the French camp after the Holy-Foy victory of (with the doors of Quebec) on April 29th. But the British offensive in direction of Montreal and the arrival of the English fleet along the the St. Lawrence force the French to withdraw themselves. The offensive on Montreal is only one formality for the English and the city falls the September 8th, ringing the knell of the French presence in North America. Still follows the catch of the Fort Pontchartrain of the Strait (Detroit) to the hands of the French.

British attacks in the Caribbean in 1761 and 1762

After the total defeat of the French in North America, the attention of the British goes from now on on the Caribbean. The conquest of the Guadeloupe in 1759 gives them a solid base of attack. The new fact in this area is the entry in war at the side of the France of the Spain. If, together, these two powers could have competed with the Great Britain as well on sea as on ground at the beginning of the war, France does not lay out any more forces terrestrial or naval sufficient. The British offensive is roundly carried out and takes the island of the Dominique while preparing a great offensive for the year 1762.

Going up the Caribbean, the British fleet takes possession of the Martinique and many French islands to arrive for Havana the June 6th. The seat is put on one of the more Spanish big cities of the Nouveau World which capitulates the August 10th. The whole of the Caribbean is now between the English hands with losses more due to the disease than with the engagements. Benefitting from these offensives in Central America, France tries to take again possession of certain parts of Canada for the peace negotiations, but this forwarding does not lead to nothing if it is not the defeat of Signal Hill the September 15th 1762 and the British remain Masters of the continent.

Peripheral confrontations

India

In India, the confrontation between English and French will be done through their two state monopolies: the French Company of the Eastern Indies and the British East India Company. Their power is before very economic and they have only some counters along the east coast of India. The hostilities burst as of 1756 whereas the two camps prepare with an imminent war. One of the powerful Indian princes, the Nawab Siraj-ud-daula, close friend the order with the French and the British to stop their preparations if not it will regard the situation as a Casus belli . If the French yield, the British continue. Consequently, the armies of Siraj-ud-daula tackle and take possession of all the Comptoir S British of the Bengal, including Calcutta. In answer, the British assemble a forwarding starting from Madras which enables them to take again possession of their counters and to make fold the Nawab. In the tread, the English army takes the counter of Chandernagor to the French the March 23rd 1757. Nawab then seeks to approach the French in order to drive out the English. The English victory of Plassey over the troops free-Indians and the treason of the uncle de Siraj-ud-daula, Mir Jafar, demolishes alliances and makes it possible to the British to make sure control of the North-East of India. In 1758, the conflict goes then in the South-east of India around the counters of Madras and Pondichéry. The countryside will be directed by the French to take Madras. After a series of minor victories, the French Army and its local allies put the seat at Madras in December but, with the arrival of English reinforcements by the sea, the seat is raised in February 1759. Benefitting from reinforcements coming from Europe, the new British general-in-chief, the colonel Eyre Coote, a certain number of possessions around Madras begins again. The decisive battle will take place with the Fort Wandiwash: the January 22nd 1760, the British army demolishes the French troops there. Pushing its advantage throughout the year, Coote manages to besiege and take Pondichéry the January 15th 1761.

The Pacific

With the entry in war of Spain in 1762, the British decide to conduct an attack against the Filipino , possessions Spanish. Using Indian troops, the British forces unload in Philippines without opposition and put the seat at Manila on September 25th 1762. October 6th, a breach is made in the walls and the city is conquered like all Philippines in the tread.

Peace and its consequences

Peace treaties

For first peace talks in 1761, stopped by the entry in war of Spain at the sides of France, it is necessary to await 1762 and the military and economic exhaustion of the protagonists to see true negotiations engaging.

Peace will be signed twice. The first treaty, the treated of Paris, relates to Great Britain, France and Spain. It is signed on February 10th 1763 and Great Britain, being in strong position, obtains enormous profits:

• In North America: Great Britain sees itself granting the Canada and all the islands to broad except Saint-Pierre-and-Miquelon which remains with the French, as all the territories to the east of the Mississippi.
• In Central America: France can recover only the Martinique, the Guadeloupe, the Marie-Gallant and the St Lucia. All its other islands become British. Cuba and the Filipino are returned to Spanish in exchange of the Florida and the evacuation of the Portugal to Europe.
• In India: only the counter of Pondichéry is returned to the French but with prohibition to strengthen it or to station an army there (giving de facto the control of the India to the British).
• In Europe: Belle-Île, occupied by the British is returned to French in exchange of Minorque. France agrees to evacuate all the territories belonging to king de Grande-Bretagne and his allies.
• In Africa: Gorée is returned to the French in exchange of the Senegal.

The Austrians and the Prussians sign on their side the Traité of Hubertusburg on February 15th of the same year. This treaty validates the borders of 1756 and the evacuation of Silesia by Austria in exchange of the abandonment by Prussia of Saxony.

Consequences

Policies

From a political point of view, the the United Kingdom is essential like the dominant world great power. Not only its forever worried national territory, but its fleet and its colonial army allow him to control all now the North America, the India and especially to dominate all the seas of the sphere. Another winner of the conflict, the Prussia passed very close to the disaster but survived and, better, acquired an important prestige: this prestige enables him to be essential like a major actor of the political balance of the German States.

As regards loser, the France leaves the conflict extremely weakened but will take its revenge later fifteen years by supporting the American colonists in their war of independence. The Austria is also losing but to a lesser extent. Its army fought more valiantly than the Prussians did not expect it, and only the final loss of the Silesia is an hard blow. It nevertheless understood that Prussia could not be shot down and will turn thereafter to the Ottoman Empire to increase, while devoting energy to necessary structural reforms. The Russia and the Spain were not very affected by the conflict politically speaking.

Soldiers

Militarily, Prussia leaves grown this conflict, being imposed with its small army against armies much more and considered better. The Prussian method then will very strongly influence the other European countries who will seek to copy it, forgetting the many Prussian defeats. It is interesting besides to note that the level of the Prussian army will go degrading itself until the humiliation which Napoleon at the time of the countryside of Prussia in will inflict to him 1806.

The British armies proved their great adaptability, especially in the colonies, where they knew to pass from a European strategy (linear order, attacks in formation) to a local strategy. It is as strange to note as these are the same capacities of adaptation which will be lacking with the British during the American revolution.

The army and the navy Frenchwomen leave humiliated this war. The army will be difficult to reform but certain improvements anticipate already the Napoleonean army (reorganization of artillery by Gribeauval, organization of the army in pseudo-autonomous divisions, more important use of the riflemen). The navy will be also reformed, but more effectively as will testify to it its effectiveness at the time of the Guerre of American independence where it will beat its British counterpart to impose a blockade on the British troops in America.

The Austrian and Russian armies did not succeed in overcoming the Prussian army but their performance was very honourable on all the levels and no basic reform will be undertaken.

Economic

From an economic point of view, the assessment is catastrophic for all the countries, mainly for France and Great Britain. The all-out war and world that the two powers were delivered cost extremely expensive and made climb in a vertiginous way their debt. England, leaving itself victorious the conflict, benefitted from its colonies to try as well as possible to refund its debts (last of 75 million books in 1754 with 133 in 1763) by many taxes and a more effective bureaucracy. These increases (like the Stamp Act on the stamps or the Tea Act on the trade of the) will be one of the sparks starting the war of American independence. France on its side, decided not to increase the taxes but to finance its debt by loans. However, with a last debt of 1,36 billion books in 1753 to 2,35 billion in 1764 and incomes in clear reduction following the loss the colonies, interest rates climb out of arrow and the cases are not able to fill.

Prussia suffered also much economically from this conflict. In addition to having to maintain an army enormous for its population resources, the conflict in Central Europe mainly proceeded on its own grounds. All the means were good for Prussia: increase in the taxes, plundering in rule of finances of Saxony and English financial aid. Austria knew the same problems of finance and manpower of its army were reduced to voluntarily decrease the military expenditure.

Human

Humanly finally, the conflict was destroying. The many campaigns carried out in Central Europe touched the civilians much (Pillage, Famine S, Taxe S additional). Many armies in shift did not have enough supply, even problems of pay and did not deprive themselves to plunder the crossed territories. One amongst other things notes the lack of scruple of the French Armies in the German States (whereas in fact allied states provide the financing to the France for this countryside).

Moreover, the military losses were serious on all the sides; many bloody battles not giving victorious any camps. The technical and organisational improvements made to the firearms were not thwarted yet by the audacity and maneuverability brought later by Napoleon and his marshals. The British methods in North America were sometimes extreme energy of cruel (to devastate the campaigns of the News-France right before the winter) with pure and simple the " cleaning ethnique" practiced against the Acadian (Deportation). Even on the secondary theater of the India, the exactions on the population were current, the soldiers not being often paid.

Summary tables of the battles

European theater

American theater

Theater of the Eastern Indies

Random links:

Jean-Baptiste Biot | Franck Knight | Parambassis | Make out | Coste della Sesia Vespolina