Serb - SpeedyLook encyclopedia

Regional alternatives

According to certain linguists, the Serb one comprises two dialects:

the chtokavien ( štokavski ) is spoken in the major part of Serbia, by the Serb ones of Bosnia-Herzégovine and with the Montenegro. The same dialect is spoken by the majority about the Croatian , by the Bosnian and the Montenegrins.
the torlakien ( torlački ) is spoken in an area relatively restricted about south-east about Serbia. It is not standardized and its recognition as a dialect of Serb does not achieve the unanimity. Because of its resemblances to the Bulgarian , it is regarded by the linguists Bulgares as pertaining to this one.

This vowel gave E (delivery “E”), I (“yé” delivery) with the alternative ije (“iyé” delivery), and I . “Milk”, for example, says mleko , ml (I) jeko or mliko . Two of these pronunciations relate to the Serb one, that from which it results:

the speeches ékaviens ( ekavski ), in the center, is and the south of Serbia
the speeches (I) jékaviens ( (I) jekavski ), in the west of Serbia and its area of Sandžak, in Montenegro and in Bosnia-Herzégovine.

The Serb literary language is founded on the dialect chtokavien, its standards admitting the pronunciations ékavienne and (I) yékavienne, as well as the transcription of those.

Phonetics

The correspondence C-W communication - pronunciation

The Serb one is traditionally written with the Cyrillic alphabet adapted so that each letter corresponds to only one sound. This alphabet is used in all the official documents of Serbia and the Serb République of Bosnia. One also uses the Latin alphabet with the diacritic ones, which returns certain sounds by groups of two letters. Its employment is majority in the regular commercial practice in Serbia. In the C-W communication, the phonetic principle goes until transcribing the foreign proper names, not only into Cyrillic, but also in Latin alphabet, such as they decide into Serb. For example, “Gerard Depardieu” becomes Žerar Depardie .

Note: R between two consonants or at the beginning of word is regarded as a vowel ( prst = “finger”, rvanje = “combat”).

Sound changes

has mobile

This sound appears with certain forms of the noun and the adjective and disappears with other forms: not = “dog”/ psa = “of the dog”, dobar = “good”/ will dobra = “good”. In the case of the radicals finished in two consonants, this has mobile appears with the plural genitive between the two consonants: radical sestr- , personal singular will sestra = “sister”, genitive plural will sestara = “sisters”.

Change of L in O

The nouns and the adjectives finished in - ao or - eo ( posao = “work”, veseo = “merry”) at one time of the history of the language were finished in L hard ( posal , vesel ) which evolved/moved in O , but only at the end of the mot. This O becomes again L if it is not any more in final position, but followed by an ending ( posla = “of work”, the genitive of the name; vesela = “merry”, the female one of the adjective).

Assimilation of the consonants

When two consonants, one deaf and the other sound one arrive in contact by addition of an ending or of a suffix to a word, the first consonant becomes, from the point of view of sonority, similar at the second (regressive assimilation). Thus,

For example, of rob = “slave”, one forms, by adding the suffix to it - stvo , the name ropstvo = “slavery”, or B is transformed into p under the influence of the first consonant of the suffix, S , which is deaf. The C-W communication of Serb being phonetic, the assimilation is returned by the writing, except at the end of the word: Šef Bi voleo da radimo. = “the chief would like that one works. ”

Palatalization

Certain consonants finishing the form of the personal case (see Variation of the names) of a name or being at the end of the radical of a verb, can change nature under the influence of a vowel beginning an ending or a suffix. The most frequent cases:

in front of a E (with the case vocative):

K > č - radnik = “working” > radniče! = “(Eh!) the workman! ”
G > ž - vrag = “devil” > vraže!
H > š - duh = “heart” > duše!

in front of a I (with personal of the plural masculines):

K > C - vojnik = “soldier” > vojnici = “soldiers”
G > Z - predlog = “proposal” > predlozi
H > S - orah = “nut” > orasi

in front of a J (delivery as “there” in “eyes”) (This kind of palatalization is called yodisation or wetting of the hard consonants.):

D > đ
T > ć
L > lj
N > nj
Z > ž
S > š

Example: The suffix forming comparative adjectives is - ji . When this one is added to an adjective finished in hard consonant, this one becomes soft: tvrd = “hard” > tvrđi = “harder”, brz = “fast” > brži = “faster”.

Stressing

The accent which strikes one of the vowels of a word has a double character into Serb. It is an accent of intensity , i.e. the vowel in question is marked with more force than the others (as in French), but also tonic (or musical ), the accentuated vowel being marked a higher tone or low than the others.

Into Serb, the accent is mobile, with only one limitation. In the case of the words having more than one syllable, the accent can strike any vowel, except the last, regulates which also applies to the foreign words, which makes, for example, to pronounce all the French words with the accent on the penultimate syllable instead of the last. Thus, in Marseilles (transcribed into Serb Marsej ), the accent is on the first syllable.

There are four kinds of accent, the combinations between the ascending character going down or and the duration from the vowel (long or short). The accent is noted only in the works of linguistics, the handbooks of language and the dictionaries. Their conventional signs are those of the examples below.

accent runs descendant: v' ȅ tar = “wind”

long accent going down: p I vo = “beer”

short accent going up: ò TAC = “father”

long accent going up: p í sati = “to write”

The not accentuated vowels can also be long or short. The long ones are noted (not in the ordinary writings) by ¯ ( žèna = “woman”/ žénā = “of the women”, plural genitive of the name).
As one can see it in this example, the character of the accent and the duration of the vowels have a functional value, for example, like here, they mark two different cases in the variation. The place of the accent also has a functional value (see Déclinaison of the adjectives).

Lexicon

Formation of the words

Derivation

As in French, by adding certain suffixes to a word, one can obtain others from them, pertaining to the same lexical family.

Among the many lexical suffixes, a suffix a little with share: - AD which forms a great number of collective names, for example to indicate groups of young animals: pil' AD = “chickens”, jagnj AD = “lambs”, such AD = “calves”. These names are in the singular and are declined like the other singular male names.

With préfixes' coming from prepositions, one obtains especially verbs starting from other verbs: ići = “to go” > ot ići = “to leave”, iz aći = “to leave”, C ći = “to come”, Na ići = “to arrive at the improvist”. These prefixes change not only the direction of the basic verb, but also its aspect (see Aspects of the verbs.)

Composition

Into Serb this process is much more productive than in French. One can apply it by:

the simple juxtaposition of two words: daN = “day” + gubiti = “to lose” > dangubiti = “to waste time, paresser”
the addition of the second word using a vowel of connection: crn = “black” + O + kos (of kosa = “hair”) > crnokos = “with the black hair”

There are also words of which the process of composition is not felt as not completed. They are written with a hyphen: radio + stanica = “station” > radio-stanica = “radio station”.

The composition can be combined with derivation: kratk- (of kratak = “short”) + O + vid- (of videti = “to see”) + - year > kratkovidan = “short-sighted”.

Loans

The Serb one is perhaps the Slavic language most permeable with the loans, much more than Croatian, for example, who prefers the neologisms based on this language. The Serb one took words with a great number of languages, of which much with French: crosses out < “dresser”, biro < “office”, butik < “shop”, ekspoze < “exposed”. There are not only borrowed names, but also of the verbs ( telefonirati , analizirati ), adjectives ( flegmatičan , logičan ) or even of the adverbs ( eventualno = “possibly”, apsolutno = “absolutely”).

Grammar

The name

Kind of the names

The Serb names can be:

male, usually recognizable according to their termination in consonant with the personal singular: grad = “city”. There are also male names finished in - has : male first names ( Nikola ), names of professions ( sudija = “judge”), etc, which are declined like the female ones.
female, generally finished in - has with the personal singular: ruka = “hand”. There are also female names finished in consonant: radost = “joy”, stvar = “thing”, which constitutes a class of variation to share.
neutral, finished in - O or in - E with the personal singular: kolo = “circle”, polje = “field”, declined like the masculines.

Variation of the names

The Serb one, highly flexional language, is characterized by seven cases, the names being grouped in four classes of variation, according to their ending with the personal singular. Here the regular variation of four names of two classes of variation comprising the greatest number of names.

Note:

the singular accusative of the animated male names is identical to their singular genitive, whereas the singular accusative of the inanimate male names is similar with their personal singular.
the ending of the plural genitive is - has long. It is what differentiates mainly the plural genitive from the singular genitive of the names male and neutral, and the plural genitive of female of their personal singular.

Functions of the cases

The adjective

Categories of adjectives

qualifiers: dobar = “good”, jutarnji = “of the morning”
of matter: drveni = “of wood”
of membership: čovekov = “of the man”, babin = “of (it) grandmother”. These adjectives are formed starting from names, by addition of the suffix - OV or - ev with the masculines, and - in with the female ones.

Short form and long form

The adjectives can have two forms, short and long. The short form is characterized by a termination in consonant with the personal singular masculine, and the long form - by the termination - I with the same case:

bratov = “of the brother” - adjectival with short form
beogradski = “belgradois” - adjectival with long form

Almost all the qualifying adjectives have the two forms, the long form being obtained by adding - I to the short form: bogat > bogat' I = “rich”. In their case, the short form is also called unspecified (or indefinite), and the long form - determined (or defined). This one corresponds in French to the adjective used as a name. Example: Bili known dva čoveka; jedan I bio siromašan' , has drugi - bogat ; siromašni I ćutao, dok I bogati mnogo pričao. = “There were two men; one was rich, the other - poor. The poor one was keep silent, whereas the rich person spoke much. ”

The adjectives of membership have only one short form, while those finished in - ski , - nji and - ji , as well as the adjectives with comparative and with the relative superlative (see below) - a long form. Consequently, these adjectives can be as well definite as indefinite.

Comparison of the adjectives

The comparative of greater degree is formed with suffixes:

- ji , - ja , I , which causes the yodisation (wetting) of the final consonant of the adjective:

for the monosyllabic adjectives with long vowel: mlad = “young person” > mlađi = “young person”
for the adjectives bisyllabic finished with the singular masculine in - ak , - ek or - ok : kratak = “short” > kraći

- iji , - ija , - ije :

for the monosyllabic adjectives with short vowel: star = “old” > stariji
for the polysyllabic adjectives: hrabar = “courageous” > hrabriji

The comparison is built with the preposition od governing the genitive: Nikola I mlađi od Dušana. = “Nikola is younger than Dušan. ”

The relative superlative of superiority is obtained the comparative one with the prefix naj- : hrabriji = “more courageous” > naj hrabriji = “most courageous”.

Variation of the adjectives

Long form

Short form

It should be noted that in the plural the short form differs from the long form only by the place of the accent: on the first with the long form, the second with the short form.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Note:

With the cases genitive, dative and the accusative, the personal pronouns have a short form and a long form. The short forms are most frequent and they are dull (they decide related to the following word, as if it resulted only one word from it). The long forms are accentuated, being used after the prepositions and the conjunctions, like insisting on the person.
the pronoun of courtesy is VI (written with capital letter).
the genitive is used only with prepositions which govern this case: One I došao posle carries out. = “It arrived after me. ”
the pronoun sebe is considered. It has only one person and always refers about the sentence, of some person that it is: Ona govori za sebe I ja govorim za sebe . Zašto Ti govoriš za sebe ? = “It, it speaks for oneself and me, I speak for me. You, why you do not speak for you? ” It has a short form only with the accusative. It is this form which one uses with the reflexive verbs: One ide da šeta. Ja idem da šetam S njim. Hoćes Li da šetaš its nama? = “It will walk. I will walk with him. You want to walk with us? ”

Conclusive pronoun-adjectives

They get busy as adjectives and also as pronouns, without changing form. They express three degrees of distance, about like “here”, “there” and “over there” in French:

Ovaj = “this one”, ova = “this one”, ovo (neutral singular), ovi = “those”, ove = “those”, ova (neutral plural) - refer with what is close to the speaker.
Onaj = “that one”, ona = “that one”, ono (neutral singular), oni = “these”, one = “these”, ona (neutral plural) - refer with what is far away from the speaker, for example nearly a third (not the interlocutor).
Taj , your , to , Ti , you , your expresses the average distance, for example referring with what is close to the interlocutor.

Possessive pronoun-adjectives

Like the conclusive ones, they are used as pronouns and as adjectives, without changing form.

moj = “mien”, moja = “mienne”, moje (neutral singular), moji = “miens”, moje = “miennes”, moja (neutral plural)
tvoj = “tien”, tvoja = “holds”, tvoje (neutral singular), tvoji = “hold”, tvoje = “hold”, tvoja (neutral plural)
njegov = “his, with him”, njegova = “his, with he”, njegovo (neutral singular), njegovi = “his, with him”, njegove = “his, with him”, njegova (neutral plural)
nje (zi) N = “his, with it”, nje (zi) Na = “his, with it”, nje (zi) No (neutral singular), nje (zi) nor = “his, with it”, nje (zi) = “his, with it”, nje (zi) Na (neutral plural)
naš = “ours” masc., naša = “ours” fém., naše (neutral singular), naši = “ours” masc., naše = “ours” fém., naša (neutral plural)
vaš = “yours” masc., vaša = “yours” fém., vaše (neutral singular), vaši = “yours” masc., vaše = “yours” fém., vaša (neutral plural)
njihov = “them” masc., njihova = “them”, fém. njihovo - neutral singular, njihovi = “their” masc., njihove = “their” fém., njihova (neutral plural)
svoj , svoja , svoje (neutral singular), svoji , svoje , svoja (neutral plural) - determines (as adjectives) or represents (as pronouns) the object (objects) had (S) by the subject of the sentence, of some person that it is. Examples: Ja jedem svoj hleb, has Ti jedeš svoj . = “Me, I eat my bread and you, you eat the tien. ” The other possessive ones in general determine/represent the object (objects) had (S) by another that the subject of the sentence.

Interrogative pronouns

interrogative-relative Pronoun-adjectives

kakav , kakva , kakvo , kakvi , kakve , kakva : Kakvu košulju hoćeš? = “Which shirt do you want? (of which kind)”, Kakvu hoćeš? = “Of which kind do you want some? ”
koji , koja , koje , koji , koje , koja : Koju košulju hoćeš? = “Which shirt do you want? (among several)”, Koju hoćeš? = “Which do you want? ”, Imam muža koji me voli. = “I have a husband who likes me. ”
čiji , - has , - E , - I , - E , - has : Čije known ove naočale? = “With which is these glasses? ”, Bio I tamo sto, čije known noge bile zabijene U zemlju. = “There was a table of which the feet were inserted in the ground. ”

Numbers

Characteristics of construction cardinal number + noun or adjective

Jedan = “one”, jedna = “one”, jedno (neutral) are built with the noun/the adjective with the personal singular: jedan grad = “a city”.
Dva = “two”, dve (female), tri = “three” and četiri = “four” are followed name/of the adjective to the singular genitive, whatever the syntactic function of the syntagm: dva graded = “two cities”.
With fart = “five” and the following numbers, the noun/the adjective is put at the plural genitive: fart gradova = “five cities”.

Names of the figures

Each figure has a name of the female kind: jedinica , dvojka , trojka , četvorka , petica , etc Examples: Dobio Sam dvojku iz matematike. = “I had two in maths. ”; Idem osmicom . = “I take to it (drank line) 8. ”.

Collective numbers

They are dvoje = “two”, troje = “three”, četvoro = “four”, petoro = “five”. The following is formed in the same way that petoro , with the suffix - oro . These numbers are used:

with the collective names: troje prasadi = “three jacks”
to indicate groups of people of different sexes: nas dvoje = “us two” (a man and a woman), osmoro učenika = “eight pupils” (girls and boys)
names of objects used per pairs: dvoje rukavice = “two gloves (forming a pair)”, in opposition with dve rukavice = “two gloves (odd)”.

With all these numbers, the noun/the adjective is put at the singular genitive.

Numeral substantives

These substantives are formed with the suffix - ica and gets busy only with names of beings of male sex: nas dvojica = “us two” (men), unlike nas dvoje = “us two” (a man and a woman).

Ordinal numbers

Those have the endings specific to the adjectives with long form: prvi = “first”, prva = “first”, prvo - neutral, drugi = “second”, treći = “third”, četvrti = “fourth”, peti = “fifth”, etc

The verb

Aspects of the verbs

Like the other Slavic languages, the Serb one knows the grammatical category of the aspect, which expresses the duration of an action or the degree of its achievement.

a imperfectif verb (also called durative ) expresses the fact that the action was, is, will be or that it is wanted that it is being held, or although it is carried out in a repeated way. Vršim svoj posao. = “I do my work. ” (I am doing it, one does not know since when and until when); Pio Sam kavu I gledao prema moru. = “I took my coffee and I looked towards the sea. ”
a perfective verb (also called temporary ) expresses the fact that the action took place or that it is wanted that it takes place in only one moment, or although it starts and finishes at times given, taking place only once: Ići ćeš da šetaš samo ako završiš svoj posao. = “You will walk so only you finish your work. ”; Popio Sam kavu. Možemo ići. = “I drank my coffee. One can go there. ”

The present properly-known as is expressed only by the verbs imperfectifs, in independent clauses or principal. The present of the perfective verbs is used only in subordinate clauses.

The majority of the verbs form couples perfective - imperfectif, the two aspects being able to be differentiated by some formal processes:

Prefix coming from a preposition in front of the imperfectif verb, like za- and Po in the examples above, which change only the aspect of the verb. Other prefixes change the direction more or less them also: ići = “to go” > ot ići = “to leave”, C ći = “to come”.
Certains verbs is perfective without suffix and imperfectifs with the suffix - goes placed in front of the suffix of infinitive - Ti : prodati (perfective) > proda' va' Ti (imperfectif) = „to sell”
other verbs is perfective with a certain suffix and imperfectifs with another. For example, the suffix - I is specific to perfective, and - has with the imperfectif one: sprem' i' Ti - sprem' a' Ti = “to prepare”.

Conjugation

The Serb verbs are divided into eight classes of conjugation, according to the termination of the radical of the verb and the ending of the 3rd person of the singular.

Example of regular verb of the 1st conjugation, with the modes and the most used times:

Note:

the irregular verbs are numerous, as well as the sound changes caused by the suffixes and the endings.
Serb grammars do not mention indicative mode.
the French verb “being” has two correspondents into Serb: jesam and biti .
the auxiliary of last made up is always jesam , which has also short forms, those which appear in the table above.
At the compound tenses, the active verbal adjective agrees in kind and of number with the subject.
At the compound tenses, the auxiliary verb is placed after the conjugé verb if it is used without personal pronoun, which is frequent, since the endings are enough to express the person. If the person is highlighted, one also expresses it by the personal pronoun and, in this case, the auxiliary verb is put in front of the conjugated verb: Govorio I. = “It spoke. ”, but One I govorio. = “Him, it spoke. ” If the verb is denied, the auxiliary verb is also placed in front of the conjugated verb.
With the negative form of the auxiliary verbs, the negation is welded with the verb. With the verb jesam , the négtion becomes nor .
the conditional one had a past formerly, but it does not have any more. The past is distinguished from the present by the context.
the future is generally formed starting from the radical of the verb, to which one adds the short form of the verb hteti = “to want” at the present: Peva' ćeš . = “You will sing. ” But in the presence of the prone personal pronoun and with the negative form, the auxiliary is detached from the verb, which takes in this situation the form of infinitive: Ti ćeš pevati. = “You, you will sing. ”, Nećeš pevati. = “You will not sing. ”
the negative requirement is formed using a special auxiliary ( nemoj ) + the conjunction da + the present of the conjugated verb.
the French subjunctive has as a correspondent the present preceded by the conjunction da : Hoću da pevaš. = “I want that you sing. ”. But this construction is also used when the subject of the subordinate verb is the same one as that of the verb regent: Hoću da pevam. = “I want to sing. ” The Serb one prefers this construction with the structure verb regent + infinitive on the same subject used by the majority of the Slavic languages, including Croatian.

Less used forms:

the future antérieur' , formed of the present of the verb biti + the active verbal adjective: budem tresao = “I will have shaken”
the preterit : tresoh = “I shook”. Only the preterit of biti is frequent, but only to form the conditional one.
the imperfect : tresiah = “I shook. ” It is employed only in the literary language and certain solidified statements, such Gde to beše ? = “Where was this? ”. In the place of imperfect one uses the past made up of the verbs imperfectifs.
the pluperfect , formed of imperfect of the verb biti + the active verbal adjective: bejah/beh pisao , or of last composed of biti + the active verbal adjective: bio Sam pisao = “I had written”.

Prepositions

The majority of the prepositions are used with only one case:

with the genitive : blizu = “near”, C = “until”, duž = “along”, ispod = “below”, ispred = “in front of”, iz = “of”, iza = “beyond, behind”, između = “enters”, iznad = “above”, kod = “close to, near”, pored = “beside”, posle = “afterwards”, pre = “front”, protiv = “against”, radi = “in the goal of”, umesto = “in the place of”, usred = “in the middle of”, zbog = “because of”

with the dative : K (a) = “towards”

with the accusative : kroz = “through, over”, niz (a) = “to the bottom of”, uz (a) = “close to, beside, with, with the sides of, etc”

with the rental : pri = “close le/la/les”

Certain prepositions govern two cases, even three, according to their direction or of the nature of the verb regent.

Note: Certain prepositions have a - has mobile used to make the pronunciation easier when the following word begins consonant consequently that the last consonant of the preposition, by a consonant of the same type, or by a group of consonants: S majkom = “with the mother”, but her sestrom = “with the sister”; pred tobom = “in front of you”, but preda mnom = “in front of me”.

Particles

The particle is regarded as a part of speech to share in grammars of the Serb one. It is an invariable word, but that can also be a solidified statement, indicating an attitude of the speaker: the doubt, the certainty, the concern, the wish, etc Beaucoup of these words have as French equivalents of the adverbs.

interrogative particles: Dolaziš Li will sutra? = “You come tomorrow? ”; Zar možeš doći Na vreme? = “You cannot come per hour? ”
exclamative particles: Went smo lepo proveli! = “What one had fun! ”
imperative particles: Prestani već S tim plakanjem! = “Stops good once crying! ”
affirmative particles: Da. = “Yes. ”, Kako da! , Nego šta! , Nego kako! = “But how thus! ”
negative particles: . = “Not. ”, Nor ja you ništa mogu učiniti. = “Me either I can nothing make there. ”
particles of precision: Baš meni to moralo desiti! = “That could arrive to me only at me! ”
modal particles: Možda nije došao. perhaps = “It did not come. ”
conclusive particles: evo , eto , eno = “here, here”. They express three degrees of distance, like the conclusive pronoun-adjectives.

Word order

Into Serb the word order is rather free, but generally it is prone + verb (+ complement): Žene idu Na pijacu. = “the women go to the market. ”, Beograd I lep grad. = “Belgrade is a beautiful city. ”

The dull words always follow a tonic word. It is to say that the sentence cannot start with a dull word. Examples:

short forms of the auxiliary verbs: Radi' ću' . = “I will work. ”, Ja ću raditi. = “Me, I will work. ”
dull forms of the personal pronouns: Dajem Ti nešto. = “I give you something. ”, Ja Ti dajem nešto. = “Me, I give you something. ”
the interrogative particle Li : Radiš Li ? = “You work? ”, Da Li radiš? = “do you work? ”

Generally, the epithet precedes the name which it qualifies.

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