Salamandra will salamandra

The terrestrial salamander or common ( Salamandra will salamandra Linnaeus, 1758, also called mottled salamander or salamander of fire ) is one of Amphibien pertaining to Salamandridae. Its very particular and very visible aspect makes it difficult to confuse with another species: a long black body being able to reach 20 cm, mottled of yellow (sometimes of orange) to the oily skin luisante pretense. It moves slowly, of a step pataude and with the characteristic to be able to very quickly regenerate lost or wounded parts of its body and to defend oneself by secretion of a neurotoxine, the Samandarin. There are mainly two subspecies: will salamandra will salamandra will salamandra and will salamandra will salamandra terrestris of which the spots forms of the yellow bands (see Nomenclature and systematic for the complete listing).

Nomenclature and systematic

With regard to the populations of Central Europe, one differentiates two subspecies according to the reasons from the yellow spots from the back from the animal:

the mottled Salamander with bands ( Salamandra will salamandra terrestris ), widespread in the west and the center of Europe,
the mottled Salamander European, or southernmost, which is the nominal form ( Salamandra will salamandra will salamandra ), widespread towards the east and the center of Europe.

In certain areas of Europe the surfaces of distribution of the two subspecies overlap, such as for example in the area Rhine-Hand in Germany.

Synonyms

The mottled salamander was described several times by the scientists: the following synonyms (among others) were thus developed with share of the scientific name currently validates:

Lacerta will salamandra (Linnaeus, 1758) ( Lacerta means “lizard”, which is erroneous from a point of view Systématique, the lizards pertaining to Reptile S)
Salamandra maculata (Schrank, 1786)
Salamandra will salamandra terrestris (Lacepede, 1788)
Triton corthyphorus (Wagler, 1820)
Salamandra vulgaris (Cloquet, 1827)
Salamandra maculosa VAr. (Doderlein, 1872) will nera
Salamandra maculosa VAr. pezzata (Doderlein, 1872)
Salamandra will salamandra (Lönnberg, 1896)

The synonym Salamandra maculosa (the epithet maculosa meaning “punctuated, stained”) was until 1955 the scientific name running. Even if one considers only the two principal subspecies ( Salamandra salamandra salamandra and S.S. terrestris ) nearly thirty synonyms can be distinguished. According to the countries, many common nouns are also associated with the mottled Salamander. The species is generally indicated salamander of fire , terrestrial salamander or common , but has several other regional names through the countries where it is widespread.

Subspecies

Currently approximately 15 subspecies are differentiated. Classification evolves/moves quickly, the data presented below are thus to take with precaution. Because of research in genetics, three let us tax in the past regarded as subspecies with Salamandra will salamandra from now on are regarded besides as species with whole share:

Salamandra corsica Savi, 1838, the Salamander of Corsica,
Salamandra will algira Bedriaga, 1883, the North-African Salamander,
Salamandra infraimmaculata (Martens, 1885).

Observations which integrate a narrow diffusion area of Salamandra will salamandra in North Africa (in the north of Morocco with presences specific and isolated in Algeria even in Tunisia) as well as smaller sectors in the Middle East (inter alia in Turkey, in Lebanon and the north of Israel) did not take yet into account these evolutions in classification.

The subspecies fastuosa and bernadezi are Vivipare S - the others are Ovovivipare S. Most of the time, the subspecies have characteristics of coloring making it possible to identify them easily (for example gigliolii almost any yellow), but of great interindividual variations exist within the same subspecies or of a population. The subspecies bernardezi constitutes a perfect example of this phenomenon.

S.S. alfredschmidti (Köhler, G. & S. Steinfartz, 2006) is a subspecies described very recently, present in Spain only in the valley of Tendi, in Asturies.
Salamandra will salamandra almanzoris (Müller and Hellmich, 1935), in the old glaciers of Gredos, Spain, whose individuals are smaller than the nominal subspecies, primarily blacks and have the compressed tail.
Salamandra will salamandra bejarae (Mertens and Müller, 1940), mountainous solid masses of Spain Centrale.
Salamandra will salamandra bernardezi (Gasser, 1978), in Asturies, and Galicia septentrional and Eastern, in Spain; the individuals resemble fastuosa , but are often smaller. Certain populations are nevertheless very different, uniformly chestnut with the yellow head.
Salamandra will salamandra beschkovi (Obst, 1981), in the mounts Pirin in Bulgaria; the animals present short ends, and have sometimes a yellow median band on the back.
Salamandra will salamandra crespoi (Malkmus, 1983), area of the Algarve, in the extreme south of Portugal, is often very large with yellow tasks with irregular and badly definite contours.
Salamandra will salamandra fastuosa (Eiselt, 1958) in the the Pyrenees central and Western and is Cantabric chain; the yellow spots form two continuous dorsal lines with an additional line on each side; the subspecies bonalli from now on is regarded as a synonym of fastuosa
Salamandra will salamandra gallaica (Nikolskii, 1918) in all Portugal and part of the north of Spain, has often dull and reddish tasks on the head.
Salamandra will salamandra gigliolii (Eiselt and Lanza, 1956) in Southern Italy; often very coloured in yellow, these individuals can present red tasks on the belly.
Salamandra will salamandra hispanica (Mertens and Muller, 1940) in the Province of Barcelona in Spain; the legitimacy of this subspecies is called in question, it would perhaps act of a synonym of S.S. terrestris .

Distribution in Germany

In this relatively flat country, the mottled salamander is only in the wooded hills and the mountainous regions, in particular in the west, the center and the south-west of the country. A series of areas inter-connected like the Metalliferous Monts is added to it, North and Is Bavaria.

In the North-East of Germany some isolated populations are, in particular in the area of the moors of Lunebourg. The species is absent from the North-East of the country, (it does not cross the river Elba towards the east). In the south-east of the Bavaria, in the south of the Danube, an important not populated area also exists. The limit of distribution altitudinale is roughly from 200 to 450 meters with the top of the sea level; some populations are known beyond this limit, for example with 650 meters of altitude in the mountainous solid mass of the Harz and with 1000 meters in the Black Forest and the the Alps. There exist some observations isolated in Lower Saxony in lower part from 100 meters altitude, for example in the Natural reserve of the forest of Hasbruch in the district of Oldenburg (25 meters of altitude).

Some adult individuals were also discovered in north in the plain of the higher Rhine in sectors topographically low. One does not have however yet unquestionable evidence of reproduction of the salamander mottled in plain. The majority of those would have been involved, at the larval stage even at the adult stage, of the foothills as well as stations of the black Forêt bordering towards the plain at the time of episodes on rising.

To illustrate that, an example of the natural area of the " Vorderer ( Before ) Odenwald " , in the sector around Heidelberg, where the mottled Salamander is still very common: the Topographie in this sector is very varied; the wooded slopes close to the solid mass of the Königstuhl (up to 566 meters of altitude), very steep, present many small ravines and several additional valleys in the valley of the Neckar and the plain of the the Rhine. The ravines rich in vegetation are accompanied by clear brooks and innumerable “blades”, which ideally satisfy the requirements of the mottled Salamander, thanks to a moisture of the air higher than the average.

Thus, as the expert of Amphibians can include/understand it, it is not abnormal to see emerging from the salamanders, after strong rains or violent one storms, downtown full and in the ponds of garden, the accesses of cellar or the installations of drain, which explore their new environment. Starting from here the animals migrate constrained and forced towards new rather atypical habitats, since their return is prohibited by several insurmountable obstacles towards their natural habitat of origin. One thus finds salamanders mottled in situations of very low in altitude around Heidelberg, close to the houses, in gardens, seedbeds, vineyards, etc

Some stations of mottled Salamander are still doubtless unknown. Because of their hidden lifestyle and their night activity, particularly during the episodes of bad weather, these Amphibians can be established in a habitat during several decades, without no human never seeing them, in spite of their remarkable colors.

Description and characteristics

Cut and coloring of the body

Cut

The adult salamanders of Central Europe can reach a maximum size of 23-25 centimetres and a body mass of approximately 40 grams , certain subspecies non-European can reach quite higher sizes, like the indigenous subspecies of Israel. The weight can however vary according to the number of swallowed preys and in addition because the adult females contain larvae under development in their belly in spring. An individual of 19 centimetres nourished well can easily reach 55 grams or more, in particular for the fertilized females.

Studies within the framework of a cartography of the forests around Heidelberg in Germany showed that the size of 20 centimetres was reached only by the subspecies with bands ( S.S. terrestris ). The southernmost salamander mottled ( S.S. will salamandra ) reached in comparison only 16 centimetres length, seldom 20. The females become taller on average than the males and with a weight often higher than 50 grams are heavier.

Description

It is an animal night, provided with large black eyes adapted to the night vision and twilight. The smooth and black skin of the mottled salamander is stopped on the back by a yellow, occasionally orange reason with red, points and/or lines. By the variability of this reason, one can identify the individuals separately. In this respect the photographic documentation of the dorsal drawing functioned in a satisfactory way like reliable method. Nevertheless, in the areas where the two surfaces of distribution overlap (primarily in certain areas of Germany), this elevated level of variation of the dorsal reason makes difficult the classification of the individuals in one or the other of the two most common subspecies ( terrestris and will salamandra ).

Moreover, it seems that for the subspecies terrestris the exchange still clearly during the first two years. In certain exceptional cases one can find salamanders mottled without spots, entirely black. Sometimes salamanders blanchâtres, Albino, are observed.

Larvae of salamanders present of the yellowish and/or brilliant marks at the base of the legs, in their proximale part. These marks make it possible to make the difference with the larvae of tritons in the Biotope S where they are every two present.

Following the example other species of Amphibians, certain prevalent ecological factors can affect the intensity of the coloring of the Salamanders. on yellowish grounds, for example of the Loess, the Salamanders appear often coloured of a more intense yellow. On a dark basement, for example on grounds of the type Mor or brown Peat, coloring has a darker color. Under the influence of a dryness and heat, the colors of the body tarnish, and during longer exposure to these two factors all the surface of the skin appears fragile and folded. These external modifications reflect at the same time surely the bad general term of the animal, since all the surface of the skin fulfills a respiratory role in the adult Salamanders, functioning in an optimal way only in one wet environment. While raising and by lowering the bottom of the mouth, the salamander can respectively inspire and expire, while simultaneously coordinating the closing and (respectively) the opening of the nostrils.

Voméro-nasal body

The salamanders have an additional olfactive body beside the nose: it is the voméro-nasal Organe. It is about a long bump with blind termination located on the external face of the nasal conduits, whose epithelium contains olfactive cells connected to the olfactive nerves of the nose.

This body probably facilitates the union with the sexual partner and/or helps the animal to be directed towards the ground. It is possible that the astonishing fidelity of the salamander at the zones of abrasion like to its summer and winter quarters is in close relationship with this olfactive body.

Glands parotoïdes

Located just behind the eyes, very surprising glands parotoïdes (or parotid) are characteristic of the species, and are for example absent at the triton S. However one also finds them in the black Salamandre or the clamping plates (in a strict sense, i.e. the kind Bufo ). For protection against the enemies, the glands parotoïdes as of the dorsal gland lines can excrete a poisoned secretion. Subjected to an important stress, a salamander is even able to discharge the poison up to one meter from distance. This capacity has to arbitrarily spit a liquid poisoned by means of particular glands was worth with the salamander mottled to be regarded in the popular beliefs as a démoniaque animal equipped with supernatural capacities.

Cutaneous secretions

The thick and brilliant skin of the mottled salamander is provided with many glands which secrete a fine layer of mucus poisoned by a Neurotoxine which acts by contact with the mucous membranes. The secretions produced by glands of the mottled salamanders are classified among the Alcaloïde S. Up to now the organic compounds Samandarin (C19H31NO), Samandaridin (C21H31NO) and Samanderon (C22H31N02) were identified.

Normally these secretions cause only one light burn - if reaction there is - on the human skin. On very sensitive people and/or children these secretions can also cause nauseas, disorders respiratory and vomiting. One finds sometimes in the local news of the symptoms of intoxication by a mottled salamander. In particular, an animal not alerted by the black and yellow colors or inexperienced (like a pup or a cat) which tries to bite or to eat a salamander rejects it generally immediately, and can be affected disorders like the involuntary contraction of the muscles of the jaws, the rigidity of the neck and/or a strong production of saliva, and in certain isolated cases death.

Separately protection against the predatory ones, cutaneous secretions are mainly used to inhibit the growth of bacteria and mushrooms on the surface of the wet skin of the animal.

Since during the process of moult defense by the cutaneous toxin secretion is strongly reduced, the salamander primarily carries out this procedure in hidden places. It begins the moult by rubbing its head or its mouth against wood, stones or another support. After the head is released from the old skin, the skin ressere around the neck. If the old skin too strongly encloses the neck, that can lead in certain extreme cases to a death by suffocation, in particular at the young specimens. By means of movements reptiliens and jerked the Amphibian then tries to reduce the skin under the chest in order to release its legs before then back for finally getting rid completely of its old skin. If that functions, the salamander with the most difficult part of the moult behind it. The release of the remaining skin is comparable to remove low-sticking, of the inequalities of the ground can then be an invaluable help. The old skin is often eaten. The new skin is still wet, ditch and to some extent sensitive after the process of moult. Very often the salamander remains thus during a certain time with the stretched members. After having moulted, the black body is more intensely contrasted.

Sound levels

The mottled salamanders, like the other members of Salamandridae, do not have vocal bags like the Anoure S (frogs, clamping plates, tree frogs, etc). They are nevertheless capable of sound levels, characterized in turn like light growls, growls or piaulements. Some specialists think that the phenomena bioacoustics in the mottled salamander are of “nature coïncidentale” and result from mechanisms of mechanical pressure of the air when the animals are frightened. In this case, they would not represent a true sound communication, supported by the fact that the urodela do not have a middle ear nor of tympanum.

Vision

The fact that the adult mottled salamanders can be very well directed visually is proven by their astonishing capacity to find their various places of life (place of hibernation, reproduction, food). Since the visual orientation of the salamander must be done primarily at dawn and/or during the night, one wondered until which luminous intensity the mottled salamander could still distinguish its environment. To answer this question, an infra-red display device made it possible to determine that the salamander could still recognize and successfully catch its preys with an luminous intensity of 10⁻⁴ Lux. With such a low luminous intensity, the human eye does not distinguish anything any more.

Lifestyle and behavior

Not fearing a Predatory S, the salamanders move slowly, and like other animals protected by prickles (such as for example the hedgehogs), of the carapaces (tortoises) or venoms, do not hesitate to cross spaces to overdraft, often with the danger of their life when they are attended roads.

Life expectancy

In captivity the mottled salamander can reach a advanced age. One thus reports the case of a salamander maintained of 1863 to 1913 (that is to say 50 years) in a Terrarium of the Museum Alexander Koenig of the zoological research institute of Bonn.

In natural environment, an life expectancy higher than 20 years was scientifically attested.

Reproduction

The reproduction of the mottled salamander is a particular case among the Amphibians autochtones of Central Europe. Whereas the majority of the Amphibians go in ponds and ponds at spring during a certain period, in order to couple itself and to deposit their eggs there, the mottled salamanders exclusively couple themselves out of water. The period of coupling lasts from April at September with a peak of in July activity. The female goes to a water zone only at the end of the embryonic period, in spring, in order to deposit the larvae.

The mottled salamander reached sexual maturity into 2 to 4 years. The sexual partners are apart from the period of coupling - for example in their place of hibernation - not easily differentiable. During the summer however the Cloaque inflates and presents a quite visible longitudinal slit in the male. In the female, the area of the cesspool remains punt even during the period of reproduction. The sexual partners probably meet thanks to the phéromones secreted then with the physical contact.

For the coupling, the male slips under the female and surrounds it with its front legs. The female absorbs with its cesspool a small packing of Sperme, called Spermatophore, deposited on the ground by the cesspool of the male. After the coupling, the female increases the embryos during approximately eight to nine months (one speaks about intra-uterine development). During this phase of development, the larvae are surrounded by membranes containing a liquid very formement concentrated in Urée. It is supposed that this very strong urea concentration contributes to increase the speed of development of the larvae in the female. For the birth of the larvae the female goes in water and deposits the new generation in a suitable place of the banks; that occurs primarily the night. According to the age, the body size and the conditions of food of the female, ranges of only some salamanders to 70 individuals are thus put at the world, with an average of 30 larvae. This number is very weak compared to some Amphibien S (the Grenouille S lay thousands of them) but as the embryos develop in the body of their mother, the resulting larvae are better formed and have a better rate of survival). The membrane S burst at the time of the deposit of the larvae in water. Thus the mottled salamander puts low: one speaks about Ovoviviparité or Larviparité. After a successful coupling, the female keeps in it the seed of the male during several years. This strategy of reproduction makes it possible the salamander to give new generations over long periods without inevitably having of sexual partner.

The larvae of salamanders mottled, from 25 to 35 millimetres, discreetly coloured, are put at the world generally in the puddle pools and the small forest rivers but also in the higher sector of the rivers, preferably in places with a speed of low current, close to the sources, or in the calm zones of larger rivers. The mottled salamanders appreciate also the not very deep fountains of the calm sources. Fresh water, low in nutrients (oligotrophic), rich in oxygen is commonly used as places of reproduction. At the populations of salamanders mottled located in altitude, one observes sometimes only one new generation every two years, which constitutes a parallel interesting with the strategy of reproduction of the black Salamandre.

Certain populations of salamanders mottled of the south of Europe are able to give rise to young completely formed salamanders, living immediately on ground - as the black Salamandre - one speaks about Viviparité. In 1928 the herpetologist Magdebourgeois Willy George Wolterstorff (1864-1943) thus brought back observations of births of young complete salamanders (breathing thanks to lungs) to Oviedo in the northern of Spain that it décriva with some reserve as the subspecies Salamandra maculosa taeniata form bernardezi ( S. maculosa being one of the synonyms taxonomic of S. will salamandra ). This discovery first of all did not draw the attention of the scientific community, and it is only in years 1970 that the discovery was confirmed by other colleagues. It is relatively easy to understand that this evolution aiming at putting at the world completely trained individuals, that it is in the mottled salamander or the black salamander, is an adaptation to modified living conditions and sometimes extremes. Salamandra will atra , subjected has an icy climate in the Alps, perhaps survived only because the development of the larvae was carried out gradually in the belly of the female. In the same way, the Viviparité can be interpreted with the salamander mottled in Spain like an adaptation to the climatic conditions of dryness (xerothermy) and to the rarefaction of associated water.

The duration of development of the larvae of salamanders is longer when the climate is colder. Thus the metamorphosis which gives final the terrestrial individual in general takes place from three to six months after the laying - the longest duration corresponding particularly to cool water of the mountain stations. Under very favorable conditions, therefore with a temperature of hotter water and a food available in sufficient quantity, the metamorphosis can be complete after only two months. With this stage the animals are long from approximately 50 to 70 millimetres. Larvae of salamander put at the world later in the year, for example during the summer, are completely able, if the living conditions are sufficiently good, to winter in a larval state. In very rare cases individuals are produced keeping certain larval characteristics even in an adult state (phenomenon of Néoténie).

Hibernation

The salamander is a hibernating animal . It joined its winter quarters only at the time of the first nights of frozen on the ground, towards the end of October, at the beginning of November. The hibernation takes place under ground primarily, in places like wells, in underground galleries of mammals, old mining tunnels, or even in cellars. For stays of long period in cellars or caves fed out of water, for example by a source, the salamander must adapt to the changing water level to avoid finishing drowned (let us recall that the adult cannot swim and risks the drowning), in particular after strong rains or of the snowfalls. A German speleologist thus observes astonishing strategies of adaptation in the salamanders hibernating in caves of karstic network in Germany; at the time of the rise of water, the individuals climb ground towards the rock columns in height, and await the fall, before turning over to hide to continue the hibernation.

The mottled salamanders show an astonishing fidelity with their habitat, and regularly reconsider the same spot of hibernation, year after year.

Occasionally, by hot days and without wind, one can meet salamanders in outside, even during the winter. One even reports that they are able to resist a light gel over short periods, with temperatures about -5°C. A thick layer of snow prevents however any activity. With the snow melt the salamanders become again active. One can thus attend the laying of the females as of mid-February. Other factors, like the lengthening of the duration of the day, moisture and the movements atmospheric, also play a part in the renewal of activity. Optimal conditions for “time with salamanders”, are an approximate temperature of +10°C, accompanied by humidity of the atmosphere from 75 to 90% and not of wind.

Food

The adult salamanders nourish themselves on the whole of invertebrate organizations like woodlice, for example Porcellio scaber , small tender coleopters as well as small specimens of slugs ( Arion sylvaticus , A. subfuscus , A. rufus ).

The ground worms (Lumbricidae) are also very appreciated preys, as well as the Araignée S and the insects which are frequently approximate " with the manner of the Chameleon " and then, according to their size, caught either with the language or by a jump followed by a blow of jaw.

The mottled salamanders generally devour all that is not too large compared to their own size, and consume sometimes other Amphibians like the tritons or of small frogs. Although the salamanders are in general very slow animals, they can become very nimble at the time of the search for prey. The small teeth in the jaws as well as the palate are used to maintain the prey to swallow it. Sharp movements of oscillation of the body support the process in particular at the time of the capture of too large preys. The language does not play a very great part during the food, owing to the fact that it remains strongly attached to the lower part of the mouth. The mouth, the language and the throat are provided with taste buds.

The salamander employs various methods of hunting according to the situation. If there is sufficient light, hunting is based primarily on the movement of the prey, and the salamander will be unaware of the motionless preys. On the other hand, at the time of a night hunting, it is the smell which is mainly used; in this situation, the salamander will attack its prey even if it does not move, since it is able to detect its odor.

The food of the larvae of mottled salamander consists primarily of larvae of insects like plécoptères (for example Protonemura auberti ), transitory (especially Ephemera danica ), chironomists (especially Prodiamesa olivacea ), Simulie S, trichoptères (especially of the species without sleeves, such as for example Rhyacophila dorsalis ), as well as small amphipodes like Gammarus fossarum . As for the adults, the following general principle can be applied to the larvae: all that has a lower size is captured; thus a larva does not hesitate to attack a tadpole. The larvae of salamanders developing in caves or caves adapt to the food which is available for them ( Niphargus puteanus , Asellus cavaticus primarily as Graeteriella will unisetigera . When the quantity of food is weak and that the density of larvae is raised, one can observe periods of Cannibalisme. One then starts to observe remainders of members or tufts of jagged gills. The cannibalism can also be started by too great differences between the age groups of the larvae in the same water point.

When the body size increases, the bites develop, until a weaker individual and already strongly wounded is not finally eaten by most extremely. At the time of the beginning of the process of metamorphosis, the catch of food is stopped during several days until the transformation is finished.

Accompanying fauna

Because of their requirements as regards natural habitat, the adult mottled salamanders are isolated enough from the other species of Amphibians. One allots even a certain tendency to a territorial behavior, which however is not yet clearly highlighted. Are proven and of “” male individuals between them, especially for the period of coupling. In the Biotope S of salamanders one finds sometimes the russet-red Grenouille, the common Crapaud and the Alpine Triton like. Other species can also be met in the same area, how for example the Alyte obstetrician in the south of the Black Forest in Germany, as well as the webbed Triton. The larvae of salamanders as for them are frequently accompanied by the Planaire S Crenobia alpina and Polycelis felina as well as the slug of source Bythinella dunkeri near the sources.

Predatory

The best protection of the mottled salamander against its predatory potentials is its remarkable cutaneous coloring, its " ornament of alerte" as well as secretions of cutaneous glands, employed according to the violence of the attack and/or the dangerous situation for the animal. If the attacker always shows a hostile attitude, the salamander releases a sparkling secretion blanchâtre thanks to its glands parotoïdes and dorsals. The form of most violent defense reaction is expressed by a jet of this cutaneous secretion. It was observed that completely developed adults of salamander can, in this situation, to send the toxin jet up to one meter of distance. In the scientific literature one finds no indication according to which an adult salamander would have been devoured by a predator. Up to now were only reported attacks of rats, hens, ducks, dogs, cats and sometimes also of snakes (such as for example of the grass snakes with collar), which all were however thwarted, the predator taking its distances quickly.

Of this fact one considers that the salamander does not have natural enemies, except the man, who does not count however among the predatory ones of the species. The situation is different for the larvae and the youthful ones, which are thus attacked by certain species of Carabe S foresters like Carabus problematicus and Carabus violaceus . Carabes frequently devours the ventral part of the larvae - generally the dorsal part remains like certain parts of the head and the tail. The larvae are more frequently in danger, since they are not able to produce poisoned toxins. Among their predatory one finds the larvae of Odonate S (in particular Cordulegaster boltonii and Cordulegaster bidentata ). Other the predatory important ones are the fish already quoted like the Truite fario, the Saumon of fountain and the common Chabot, in particular when the larvae of salamanders find themselves low in plain in full of fish zones. Also rare the watery shrew ( Neomys fodiens ) drives out time with other the larvae of salamander.

Parasites

The infestation of adult salamanders mottled by parasite S external, also called Ectoparasitic S, was not observed up to now because of strong content of cutaneous poison of the salamander. The parasites living inside the body, or Endoparasite S, are present in the mottled salamander. One thus observed a population of salamanders in the Taunus (average mountain in the Land of Hesse in Germany) a direct attack with the Amphibians however could not be determined magré this rate of infestation. In an isolated way, were observed infections of Nématode S in the instestin and the mucous membrane of the mouth.

Men and the mottled salamander

History

The mottled salamander for a long time gained the confidence of the Man, because of his external appearance rather striking. Its strong notoriety always was however not with its advantage. The salamander was regarded a long time as generated by fire or able to survive it. It is in any case probable that salamanders hidden or wintering in deadwood, were formerly seen escaping from a hearth of chimney letting think that they were generated by fire or there resistant. The common noun of “salamander of fire” derives from this belief.

This belief appears already in 1590, in the work of Joachim Camerarius of Nuremberg “ Symbolorum and Emblematum ex Aquatilibus and Reptilibus ” where it mentions: See the Salamander which crosses the flames. It is also always the characteristic of the purity to remain unscathed.

Thereafter, the various representations of the mottled salamander, for example in the books of emblêmes of the late Middle Ages, give him more similarities with a reptile, pointing out “a draconic creature rather”. The mottled salamander escapes this convention from representation only in the middle of by a varnish of the painter Antwerp ois Jan van Kessel (1626 - 1679), a representation naturalist where the mottled salamander figure in the middle of a whole of 39 insects and different reptiles. In spite of an erroneous systematic classification (even Carl von Linné also yielded at the beginning with the consensus of its time and indicated the species as Lacerta will salamandra - Lacerta meaning Latin lizard), this varnish recalls already a panel of instruction directed didactically on biology.

Certain Kings de France, such François Ier made salamander a royal emblem, as testifies some in particular the salamander carved in low-relief above the door of honor of the Château of Amboise.

One of most decorative and at the same time of the most exact salamanders mottled was provided by the painter in watercolours and copper plate engraver of Nuremberg August Johann Rösel von Rosenhof (1705 - 1759) in its enluminé panel of 1758 “ Historia naturalis ranarum nostratium ”. With the publication of this work developed in same time the first stages of a more scientific herpetology. Amphibians and reptiles were then released from their negative symbolic system, the magic and the superstition.

Threats and protections

Salamandra will salamandra is protected in the majority from the countries from Europe via its inscription with appendix III from the Convention from Bern. Countries, not having adhered to the Convention of Bern, also protect it (like the Ukraine starting from 2000). It is registered on the red list of the species of fauna threatened in several countries of its surface of distribution, like France, Germany, Switzerland and Austria. In France it is protected nationally as well as all the Amphibians. It is a species threatened with the direction where its populations were strongly reduced, whereas its natural habitat is reduced and splits up.

In spite of its legal protection in many countries, the salamander has been in Europe in constant regression for at least a century. Several causes seem to explain this regression, of which mainly: the retreat of the Wetlands will intra and périforestière by filling or drainage, the contamination of its environment by the Pesticide S (it is in particular sensitive to the Insecticide S which can kill the adult, or larvae, with low dose), and the Fragmentation écopaysagère in general and the fragmentation of the forests by the Route S in particular.

The salamander seems attracted by the Macadam hot and wet after the rains of summer. Many corpses of salamanders are found on these roads when they are attended (phenomenon of Roadkill). Two great ways started to be set up primarily as from the years 1980-1990 to try to protect the species; the protection of its habitats (wood, ponds, slow rivers) for example by Natural reserves, and the restoration or protection of biological Corridors, with if necessary of the écoduc S allowing him to pass under a road. Nevertheless, the gatherings of hundreds or thousands of salamanders evoked there is more than 100 years, in Central Europe in particular seem completed. Many salamanders also die, trapped, in holes, cisterns, sewers, septic tanks, etc of which they cannot arise. With the difference in the tritons, the adult salamanders cannot climb a smooth or vertical wall. It is not excluded that the adult or the larva can be affected by the illumination their mediums. (it is the case for many other Amphibians, which is shown in experiments disturbed by night lighting).

The fragmentation of the natural habitats of a growing number of glazing bar forests, thickets and probably induces a genetic impoverishment of the populations of salamanders.

Source (S)

See too

salamander

Bibliography

Arnold NR., Ovenden D. (2002). guide herpéto , Delachaux editions and Niestlé, 2 ème edition.
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Feldmann, R. & R. Klewen (1981): Feuersalamander. In: Feldmann, R. (Hrsg.) (1981): Die Amphibian und Reptilien Westfalens. Abh. Westfälisches Museum Naturkunde Münster 43 (4), 30-44.
Freytag, G. (1982): Aktives Giftspritzen EIB Salamandra will salamandra (Amphibia: Caudata: Salamandridae). - Salamandra 18 (3/4), 356-357.
Gasc, J. - P., A. Cabela, J. Crnobrnja-Isailovic, D. Dolmen, K. Grossenbacher, P. Haffner, J. Lescure, H. Martens, J.P. Martinez-Rica, H. Maurin, M.E. Oliviera, T.S. Sofianidou, Mr. Veith & A. Zuderwijk (EDS.) (1997): Atlas off the Amphibians and Reptiles in Europe. Societas Europaea Herpetologica, Paris.
Habermehl, G. (1994): The biological relevance off Salamandra venom. In: Biology off Salamandra and Mertensiella (Greven & Thiesmeier Eds.). Mertensiella data base 4,209-214
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Linnenbach, Mr. (2000): Fehlpaarung zwischen Rana temporaria und Salamandra will salamandra put tödlichem Ausgang. - Zeitschrift für Feldherpetologie 7,224-225.
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Thiesmeier, B. (2004): Der Feuersalamander. Zeitschrift für Feldherpetologie, Suppl. 4,192 S.
Thiesmeier, B. & R. Günther (1996): Feuersalamander - Salamandra will salamandra (Linnaeus, 1758). In: Günther, R. (Hrsg.) (1996): Die Amphibian und Reptilien Deutschlands, Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 82-104.
Veith, Mr. & G. Erpelding (1995): Presence off Pomphorhynchus laevis in Salamandra will salamandra . - J. Helminthologie 69,267-268.

External bonds

Small file on the salamander on Universe-Nature
www.feuersalamander.com
www.ag-urodela.de
www.schwanzlurche.de
weitere Fotos EIB www.herp.it

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