Monarchy with the Republic

The tradition

the despotism of the last king had given even more attraction to freedom , written Tite-Live in its Roman Histoire , II-1.

In 509 av. J. - C., the last king Tarquin Superb the is driven out by Lucius Junius Brutus following a rape perpetrated on Lucrèce, wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus by Sextus Tarquin, wire of the king. Tarquin Collatin and Brutus raise the population against the king. Tarquin takes refuge in the Latin city of Tusculum, while the capacity is shared between Brutus and Tarquin Collatin. The events follow one another with speed:

Tarquin Collatin is exiled in Lavinium to draw aside from Rome the race of Tarquins
Brutus makes carry out its own sons, culprits of plot to restore Tarquin, then is killed into 508 as a combatant Aruns, wire of Tarquin.
Towards 508, Porsenna, king of the Etruscan city of Clusium intervenes in vain in Rome against the savage opposition of the Romans
In -499 (or 496), Rome is essential against the united Latin cities, beats them with the Bataille of the lake Régille and imposes the creation of a federation, the Latin Ligue.

Interpretations of the historians

The historians generally agree to regard the adventures of the beginnings of the Republic as as legendary as the details of the Fondation of Rome. Some interpret the succession of events brought back by Tite-Live.

Thus J. Heugron proposes the following scenario: Porsenna, king de Clusium, organized an invasion of Latium like had previously done it Tarquinia and Vulci, drove out Tarquins and occupied Rome, from where it attacked then Aricie, being opposed to a Latin coalition and of Cumes, which put it in failure. Heugron raises that the consular Fastes of the first years of the Republic count several names of Etruscan origin as magistrates: Larcius in 506,498,490, Herminius in 506, Aquilius Tuscus in 487, indices of an Etruscan presence perdurant in Rome beyond 509. The departure of Tarquins would thus not mean the end of the Etruscan influence.

Culture of the Roman Republic

Republican institutions and evolutions

The conditions under which the transition is carried out towards the new mode explain mainly certain political reflexes of ancient Rome, like the fear (quasi phobic) of tyranny and the personal capacity. The execution by Brutus of its own sons has value of warning, and offers a symbol parallel with that of the mortal combat between Romulus and its twin Remus. Periodically return from the defamatory charges to aspire to the royalty: against Publius Valerius Publicola worried in -503, against Spurius Cassius, carried out in -486, against Spurius Maelius carried out in -439.

The Institutions of the Roman Republic are among the best known ones of antiquity with those of Athens. Their installation results from a long process, fruit of arm wrestling between the Patriciat and the Roman Plèbe. The Roman Citoyenneté being condition has minimum to claim to exert responsibilities in the social life.

With the proclamation of the Republic towards -509, the institutions of the royal time remain in place: Roman Senate or assembled the old ones, popular assemblies or Comices. Only the king is replaced, in his function of command ( Imperium ), by praetores , which will take into -449 the name of Consul S. the celebration of certain religious rites required a royal presence, the senators circumvented the obligation by the designation of a Rex sacrorum (king of the crowned things), limited to a few days.

At the beginning of the Republic is established the principle of a collegial capacity (even number magistrates, two generally) and temporary (one year mandate). The aristocracy of the royal period, the patricians, were only posed like able to exert the power ( Imperium ), as well as the religious functions (of which the augurat, related to the capacity to exert the imperium and a long time prohibited with plebeian).

The capacity is initially exerted by a college of praetors, directed according to the years by a preator maximus or two praetores raise . The difficult war against the Latin is carried out in -498 by a dictator named for a few months.

A scientist balances magistratures built himself in five generations approximately, fruit of a fertile antagonism between two social classes, solved by the progressive accession of the plebeian candidates for all the magistratures and the religious functions. This installation did not go without gropings (period of the military Tribuns to consular capacity during 72 years), with moments of extreme tension (culminating by the secessions of the plebs) and sometimes of violences, without however degenerating into civil war.

In -180 and -151, some laws additional specify the operation of the magistratures, organizing the career of the honors ( Lex Villia Annalis on the Cursus honorum ), and limiting the re-eligibility. The system functioned rather well during 25 years, and corrupted as from the years -130, under the pressure of another antagonism, rich patricians and preserving plebeian rich person ( Optimates ) against proletarians and knights ( Populares ).

The army

It is difficult to say if the institutions are an emanation of the armed or if the army is integrated in the institutions. The Roman Legion form the spinal column of the Roman capacity. Rome used its legions to counter its adversaries but the war got a source of revenue to him. It could do it, thanks to the discipline, the formation and the professionalism of its army.

The army was standardized, a military machine in which the heroism and the bravery of the individuals were only secondary. The material, the tactics, the organization compensated for them, as well as the prevalence of Rome in architecture and medicine. So that Rome ended up dominating Europe and the Mediterranean circumference. For that purpose, Rome knew, at the time of its defeats, or when it encountered difficulties, to make the reforms necessary to surmount them.

The army underwent a great transformation during the republic. Initially the army was founded on the Cens , where the row of the soldier depended on his fortune. The countries soldiers fought then to defend their grounds. However, with the wire of time, the ideal Publicain became unbearable with these soldiers, the garnered richnesses going only to the most fortunate persons in charge. The conquered grounds, instead of being versed with the Ager publicus , were confiscated and of the Latifundia created. After some defeats vis-a-vis the Cimbres, Marius reform the army in order to release these peasants soldiers, and to have an army equipped better and trained. Peasants soldiers, the army was professionalisée around its general. Without the minimum taxable quota , recruitment is also broader. This evolution is one of the factors which will transform this mode into that of the Principat. In addition, the volunteers, at the end of their service received a piece on the confiscated grounds, which accentuated the romanisation provinces

See also: List of the wars of the Roman Republic

Culture gréco-Roman

It possible that the Romans entered in contact with Greek civilization through the Greek quoted to the south of the Italy and in Sicily (i.e the Magna Graecia) however the Etruscan influence, themselves is influenced by the Greek culture, does not enable us to say precisely from which the hellenism comes from the Romans. The Romans adopted good number of belief nuns, traditions, political ideas, architectural elements, knowing technical. Archeology made it possible to discover Greek pottery which dates from the VIII E. Rome while becoming Master of the Italy and especially of the cities of Large Greece after the Second Punic War, by controlling a great number of Greek slaves made only reinforce this hellenism. Indeed, the rich person Roman families used slaves tutors for their children, their doctors were Greek, the prostitutes took Greek names… The Greek had become a language second, largely used in the trade, a language of culture also, so that of works as Iliade had become Roman with the eyes of the Romans. Virgile wrote some of these works directly in Greek. The richest Romans sent their children in the Greek schools which they are with Cos, Alexandria or Athens.

The catch of the Greece in -146 made only reinforce the phenomenon. The Greek as well as Latin had become linguæ francæ for half is the Mediterranean.

Roman religion

History

The fight for survival (towards 500-350)

Enclosed on a reduced territory, Rome put one century and half, of the beginning of the 5th century to first half of the 4th century, to pacify and dominate its vicinity; she reached that point laboriously thanks to her capacities of mobilization and with the assistance of the other Latin cities .

The Roman force: legionaries and ritual

The figure of the Roman legionary, citizen in turn country and soldier is exemplary for legendary the Cincinnatus, which into 458 gives up its agricultural work to beat the Èques and the Volsques in sixteen days, and to turn over then to its plow. In a more historical reality, the Roman soldier is a sufficiently easy landowner to be equipped with his expenses, built-in according to the needs during the meeting of the Comices centuriates on the Champ de Mars.

The warlike activity fits in the Roman Calendrier, like a seasonal activity. It starts at March 19th with the crowned dances of the priests Saliens and the purification of the army to the Champ de Mars, and is completed on October 19th by the armilustrum, the purification of the weapons. In theory, any warlike action against an adversary is preceded by the statement by the priests Fétiaux of the Roman claims. The respect of this ritual guarantees a war right, in agreement with the gods, but according to Andreas Zack its practice was rather rare (cf the article Fétiaux). The vote of the Comices centuriates also intervenes in the declarations of war and the making of the treaties.

The Latin League

The passage of the royalty to the republic does not change the attitude of Rome vis-a-vis its neighbors: alliance with Gabies is maintained, and republican Rome is allied as of its beginnings in the other Latin cities, within the Latin Ligue, warlike coalition with definite rules of division of the spoils between its members. According to the accounts of the ancient historians, it is Rome which directs this League, the modern historians are more circumspect, because other cities like Tusculum, Ardée, Lavinium, Aricie disputed this supremacy.

First adversaries

The adversaries of Latin are as for them the people of the hills and the close relations mountains, with one or two days of walk only: the Herniques, first subjected, then towards -448 the Sabins however related according to the myths of the Foundation of Rome, combative the Eques and Volsques. The modern historians do it parallel between the attacks of these people on Latium, and those of the Samnites on the Campanie, with in both cases the assumption of attempts at expansion of mountain tribes towards more prosperous zones, under the effect of their demographic pressure.

Rome is also at the border of the Etruscan fields, which start on other bank of the Tiber. The relations established with the Etruscan cities vary one with the other: Rome is opposed several times to Véies and its colony Fidènes which controls to 10 km upstream a ford on the the Tiber and locks the Via Salaria towards the Sabine. Rome manages with difficulty to seize these two cities in -426 (Fidènes) and in -396 (Véies). Conversely, Rome maintains good relationships with the rich person and powerful Caere (Cerveteri): at the time of the attack of Gallic in 390, Rome put in safety at Caere the the crowned Vestales and all objects.

See the chronology of the military actions in the Chronology of the Roman Republic

About the year 400, the Latin Rome and cities managed to subject the close close relations. They create several colony S soldiers (Tibur, Préneste, Antium, etc) which supervise these people.

The raid Gaulois of 390 is a terrible shock, Rome and other Etruscan and Latin cities were plundered or held to ransom. But it is not an invasion, the Gallic ones set out again with their spoils. Rome is concerned its ruins, and manages as of 378 to obtain an imposing wall in Tuf and to rebuild its monuments. The Romans will have to fear the Gallic raids until towards -200. Rome meets for the period -390 with -348 of new difficulties in Latium. The people Volsques and Eques indeed took again the weapons against Rome, benefitting from its temporary weakening to take again their freedom. The Romans sign an alliance with Latin and the Herniques to face the threat in -378. During this period, Rome gains important military victories, in particular under the command of Camille. In -358, during the renewal of alliance with Latin and Herniques, Rome restored its hegemony on Latium, Volsques and Eques.

Economic evolution

Conquest of Italy (350-264)

The wars samnites

Latin wars

Tender of the Greek cities

Organization of Roman Italy

See also: Italy (Roman epoch), Roman Citizenship

The commonly-used terms of conquest and Roman domination on Italy hide a more complex reality: the organization of a centralized state is then unknown Roman world, it is more exact to speak about supremacy, established as well by the complete destruction (destruction of cities like the Etruscans Véies, Volsinies, massacre of the pentapôle of the Aurunces), as by alliances imposed (Tarquinia) or authorized (Capoue, Clusium, quoted Greek of the south).
The Roman direct domination is exerted only on the ager romanus , small fraction of central Italy (primarily Latium and the Sabine). Italy is a mosaic of cities and people whose relations with Rome are organized by a Foedus , treated negotiated or imposed on a case-by-case basis and more or less favorable for the partner of Rome. Each city has of its territory and its internal autonomy, according to a hierarchy of statute agreed upon, granted or imposed by the Roman Sénat:

the Municipe S of Roman law, Roman colonies whose citizens enjoy the same rights as the Romans
the Municipe S of Latin right, whose citizens lay out of the Roman Citoyenneté without right to vote in Rome, but which choissent their magistrates
the prefectures ( Praefecturae ): municipe of Latin right directed by a delegate ( praefectus ) of the urban Praetor of Rome
allied or federated cities ( civitates foederatae )
cities subjected by the force and paying a tribute in Rome

Military reinforcement of Rome

This system of treaties imposes a policy of peace or common war, therefore on the initiative of the most important city, Rome. Any threat or attacks on an Italian city determines a Roman reaction, which organizes defense by mobilizing its legions, and by requisitioning auxiliary Troupes and provisioning at its allies. In the event of urgency, the capacities of mobilization of Rome are from now on considerable: in -226, vis-a-vis the threat of a Gallic invasion on Italy, Rome set up close to: 800000 men, according to a statement transmitted by Polybe.

The Roman army knew several defeats, of which it knew to draw from the lessons: the individual armament improves by employment of the Pilum like the technique manipulaire, supposed loans makes with Samnites, and the Coat of mail, copied the Gallic ones. The engagements against Pyrrhus and his elephants make progress the mobility of the handle in the formation in line of battle, and the practice to strengthen with each stage the Roman Camp is established. The Roman Légion becomes increasingly effective.

Rome against Carthage (264-201)

Trade agreements with face to face

The relations between Rome and Carthage were a long time cordial, of makes as much as lasted the Greek expansion on the Méditerranéen world. Indeed, from the agreements of exchange were concluded, into -508,-348 and -306, which restricted the circulation of the Roman ships in the zones controlled by Carthage, as well as a treaty of mutual defense in -279 against Pyrrhus. But in the middle of third century BC, the Greeks are definitively isolated of the Western Mediterranean, and, their convergent interests having disappeared, the two rival cities are found only face to face.

The Romans note that Carthage has a considerable advance: shores of Africa while passing by the southern parts of Spain, the punic city has many territories. But over all, all the islands of the Tyrrhenian Sea are Carthaginian (Corsica, Sardinia, Balearic Islands). And the completion of the conquest of Sicily by the Carthaginians would put at their range all Italy of the South that Rome has just subjected, while the Roman seizure on the ports of the Italian South places Rome in competition of Carthage on the trade to the Eastern Mediterranean.

The narration of the Punic Wars comes us on the side of the winners, by Tite-Live and Polybe in particular. Each time, they present the intervention of the Romans like a reaction justified on Carthaginian aggressions. But the expansionist intention is not absent from Roman leading class, particularly of the Cornelii and Æmilii . The wars which result from this will modify considerably the balance of the forces in the Mediterranean. In the space of two generations, the Romans indeed will reduce Carthage to the impotence before destroying it into -146.

The first crisis bursts into -264 in Sicily shaken by the transitory conquest of Pyrrhus Ier. The hostilities start with the arrival of a Roman army with Messine.

See the detail of military operations in the article First Punic War (264-241)

At the conclusion of this long conflict, Rome becomes a dominant maritime power in the Western Mediterranean, with a fleet of dreaded war, and takes foot in Sicily, putting prestigious the Syracuse under its protection.
Carthage, very weakened by the peace treaty, then in prey with a mutiny of its mercenaries between - 241 and -238, must then ratify into -238 the catch of Sardinia and Corsica by the Romans.
Between -237 and -219, the Romans take again the conquest of Gaulle Cisalpine in Italy while in Carthage the family of the Barcides starts into -237 the conquest of Spain, finished in -221. In -226, Rome, anxious of the constitution of this terrestrial empire, forces the Carthaginians not to cross the Èbre.

In -219, the Casus belli is the attack of Sagonte in Spain by Hannibal Barca. Then begin a war which will decide future of the Mediterranean.

See the detail of military operations in the article Second Punic War (218-201)

The conditions of peace reduce Carthage to a surface restricted in Africa, deprive it of its fleet of war and of trade and impose a tribute to him of: 10000 talent S of payable gold over 50 years.

Consequences of the conflict

While Carthage is lowered with the row of city-state tributary of Rome, the two Punic Wars had major and durable impacts on the organization of the Roman Republic in many fields:

Territorial : the territorial enlarging is the most obvious impact, with a domination without division on the Western Mediterranean, of which a seizure on the Hispanie (Spain), divided into 197 into two provinces. The will of establishment marked as of Scipion the African by the creation of the colony of Italica will impose on Rome the permanent maintenance of troops, and frequent operations of pacification in Spain, and also in Sardinia and Corsica. In Italy the confiscations carried out in reprisals against the cities one moment rejoined in Hannibal increased the Ager publicus, without a productive development following
Financier : the public purses were upset by the effort of war, with impacts which were perennialized:

at the beginning of the war, the financing was done by the devaluation of the currency, the sum of money of money passing with 16 ace, and the exceptional emission of gold currencies with the reserves of the Senate
at the end of the war, re-establishment of finances with the takeover of the Spanish siver-bearing black leads, considerable spoils of Capoue, Tarente and Syracuse, and the enormous war indemnity imposed on Carthage gave the means of an abundant coining, in money sums of money primarily, and gave to flood the treasury of the Republic

Démographique and social : Italian agriculture was touched hard, as well by the long mobilizations of country soldiers and by the human losses, as by the forced abandonment of the grounds cultivated by populations gathered in the cities, particularly in Rome.
Economic : the mobilization of the men, impossibility of cultivating or of collecting on the theaters of operations, the needs for the legions made the supply problematic. The Roman fleet allowed new circuits of supply corn, from Sicily and Sardinia, avoiding the famine. After the war, these corn imports at low prices continued, competing with the Italian farmers and still worsening their situation.
Logistic : the weak organization of the services of the Roman State obliged to sub-contract with private individuals the routing of the supply of the army or the maintenance of the fleet of war, against promise of refunding once the finished war. Individual fortunes appeared and thrived on this occasion. This leasing of public services was simple for the Roman and lucrative State for the racketeers, it developed during all the Republic, mitigating the absence of great national services.
Political : the decimated Senate had to be supplemented by the incorporation of the former magistrates, procedure which will become systematic for the magistrates leaving function. In this assembly with prestige reinforced, the influence of the Cornelii (clan of Scipion the African) will be able to impose a policy interventionist, as of the end of the second Punic War.
Moral : Polybe analyzes with disapproval the plundering of Syracuse: “ the Romans decided to transport in their own city the works of art, and to leave of it any Renoncer to the uses (frugality) which got the victory to adopt the tastes of overcome and to attract each other the desire that the pleasure of such a luxury causes, everyone will recognize that it is an error there. These things which have nothing to do with the power, the Romans could leave them where they were, and be used glory of their fatherland by avoiding it not sculptures and tables, but of dignity and magnanimity . ”

Roman Imperialism in the Mediterranean (200-133)

If screw pacem, para bellum , known as a Latin proverb (if you want peace prepare for war). This summarizes well the Roman foreign policy for the first part of the 3rd century. Cn. Manlius Vulso is even clearer when he proclaims in front of the Senate the need for Rome for ensuring peace on sea and ground and to supervise the East. The Senate, naturally preserving but pulled by Cornelii, Servilii, Acilii and Aemilii with the broad political sights, decides with preventive actions against all the states or the people being likely to present a threat for Rome or its allies.
Rome cannot durably maintain several armies yet on the war footing. Until worms -150, it thus does not carry out any annexation of territory in the East, devoting the large one of its effort to harden its control of the conquests made on Carthage and to protect north from Italy. The revolts of Sardinia of -181 and -126 like in Corsica of -181 and -166 with -163 are pitilessly crushed, and the Hispanie a long time will mobilize the legions.

Pacification of the Hispanie

The Iberian peninsula is a case with share in the Roman conquests. If the Celtibères had accommodated Scipions as liberators of the Carthaginois, they déchantèrent when they transfer that the Romans settled in their turn. The country was divided into two province S, later Spain or Bétique and the Hispanie citérieure. A first colony is created with Italica, the mines and the flat rich person with corn are exploited by Rome. In -197, a revolt bursts in later Spain, which quickly gains the two provinces including the tribes of the interior not subjected to Rome. In spite of the repression of Caton Old the in -195, the war is completed only in -179.

This lull lasts 25 years until the rising of the Lusitanian S carried out by Viriatus from -154 to -138, and a new conflict with Celtibères from -153 to -151. These wars are expensive Romains and are catastrophic for the Spaniards who undergo a repression without pity. Last Celtibère rising in -143 will be cruelly crushed. This not very glorious chapter of the history of Rome was completed in -133 with the destruction of Numance by Scipion Emilien. One continued to maintain in Spain a standing army, with an important Italian immigration, but the North-West of the peninsula will be really conquered only at the time of Auguste.

Preventive wars

In the Eastern Mediterranean, the situation was more complex. The Romans were going to face more advanced and more structured communities, born from the bursting of the empire of Alexandre Large the in -323.

In -229, Rome ventured for the first time at the east of the Adriatic. She declared the war with the kingdom of Illyrie from which the pirates left who foamed the Italian coasts and plundered the Roman merchants.

Balkans and Asia

Overcome Carthage, the Romans were interested again in Balkans. The war between Rome and the Royaume of Macedonia burst in -200 and Rome made sure alliance of the majority of the Greek cities. After two years of dubious combat between the two powers, in -197, the Romans gained a decisive victory over Macedonia with the battles of Cynoscéphales. In -194, the Roman troops leave the Balkan S, after having proclaimed solemnly that Rome would respect the freedom and the independence of the Greek states.

However in -192, a new threat is profiled in the Eastern Mediterranean, that of the ambitions of Antiochos III, king of Syria and Mésopotamie, who in -196 had occupied the Thrace and claimed to reconstitute the empire of Alexandre the Large one. In -192, it took pretext of a conflict between Greek cities to intervene in continental Greece. Rome, not being able to accept this incursion, reacts and sent an army in Greece which pushed back and crushed the army of king de Syrie Antiochos III with the Battle of Thermopyles in -191. The Romans did not stop there. They invaded the Asia and demolished once again the army of king de Syrie to the Bataille of Magnesia of Sipyle in -190 what obliged Antiochos III to give up all the Asia Mineure and to withdraw beyond the Monts Taurus.

In -189, the Romans invaded the territory of the Galates which had been combined in Antiochos III and massacred them. In -188, Rome treated finally with Antiochos III and the Paix of Apamée was signed. Antiochos III renonçait by this treaty with its ambitions of conquest and renonçait in Greece, Thrace and Asia Mineure. In -187 the Roman forces evacuated Greece and Asia.

Sixteen years were passed before Rome does not take again the weapons on the Greek ground. In -171, the war bursts between Rome and Macedonia. The first engagements are in favor of Persée, king de Macédoine, who gains the Bataille of Callinicus in -171. However, after two years of engagements dubious between the two powers, Macedonia is definitively overcome in -168 with the Bataille of Pydna where the Armée Macedonian is destroyed by the consul Paul Emile.

After Pydna, the pacification of Macedonia was of an unbounded brutality and this one was divided into four distinct republics and its population condemned to pay the tribute. Those which resisted to the Romans were pitilessly crushed and reduced in slavery by the Romans. One carried out purgings of the elements anti-Romans in the Greek cities, which made it possible to the Romans to indirectly control the Greeks during 18 years without intervening. In Asia, Pergame and Rhodos which had temporized without engaging, lost part of their territory. Rome tolerated only one attitude: the complete and total tender with its authority.

In -150, they intervened again in Macedonia after a rising crushed in -148 and Macedonia became a Roman province. In -146, the Achaean league was crushed in its turn and its territory incorporated in the Roman possessions in Macedonia. In -146, very whole Greece becomes Roman province after the setting with bag of the town of Corinth.

The Third Punic War burst in -150 when Rome intervened in a disagreement which opposed its ally, the king of Numidie, with Carthage and although Carthage does not represent a threat. However it had just paid its last tribes of war. After a despaired resistance, it fell to the hands from the Romans in -146 and was completely shaven. Its territory became the province of Africa.

Crisis of the Roman Republic (133-27)

The upheavals of the old system based on the control of the grounds by the people and their use by their customers, already started with the catch of Sicily is accentuated. The governors named with the head of the provinces put their military capacity at the service of their ambitions. Indeed, the soldiers being paid by their military chief, they have interest so that this one is richest and powerful possible. The ambitions of the generals make unstable the political life.

Agriculture with large scales changes at the same time the types of production that the relationship between the owners of the grounds and those which exploit them. Slavery is economically more profitable. The small holders in Italy are ruined by the competition of the Latifundia and the massive corn imports. The depreciation of bronze and in parallel the fiduciarisation of the economy change the social reports/ratios. In addition of new actors, thanks to the trade and other activities became very rich. As the richness influences directly the social role of the individuals, that contributes to destabilize the policy.

Increasing instability and violence marked the last years of the Republic. This tendency, started to the II E following the will of the Gracques to solve the agrarian problems. The campaigns are not very sour, one can travel only well kept. Troops of brigands traverse the campaigns. The slaves revolt and contribute to the insecurity, they are the servile Guerres.

The Proscription S of Sylla towards the end of the Années -80 after the second civil war bring back the capacity to the Sénat but the poverty become chronic for most of the population and which touches even good number of citizens perdure. The followed policy also tends to deprive these citizens of the right to vote. The calm one is regularly broken at the time of conflicts like the social Guerre and of the political acts like the Conjuration of Catilina.

The resumption in hand of the Senate on the policy, by preventing any reform, is one of the major causes of the fall of the Republic.

See also: Agriculture of ancient Rome, Roman Currency

The reform of Gracques

the Gracques

Marius

Marius (Roman consul)

The social and civil war

See also: social War, First Civil war Marius-Sylla, Second Civil war Marius-Sylla

First war of Mithridate

Sylla

Sylla

The first triumvirate

The civil war

The second Triumvirate

Capacity with the hand of only one

Auguste
Emperor
Roman Empire

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