Rome counted in Africa to eight different provinces (of is in west): the Tripolitaine, the Byzacène, the Africa Proconsulaire, the Numidie Cirtéenne, the military Numidie|soldier], the Maurétanie Cesarean, the Maurétanie Sitifienne and the Maurétanie Tingitane. Roman Africa is a whole, studied by the historians as a whole, in spite of very strong regional disparities and great chronological ruptures in the eight centuries of its history. The two great historical problems concerning these provinces are currently the questions of their romanisation and their christianization. The term Roman Africa indicates as follows:

  • is the grounds of Africa which Rome

  • dominated is the romanized share of Africa.

DEBATEs historiographic and sources

August 1st The history of the Roman establishment in Africa is complex and still comprises many remote regions. The historiography of Roman Africa suffered a long time from a comparison established between ancient colonization and modern colonization analogy sometimes “reversed” according to the formula of Yvon Thébert.

For a long time, this Historiography was the exclusive domain of the French Scientists and this as of the XIX° century, following colonization. The discovery of the History of Roman Africa was thus not made by its inhabitants. This historiography conceals at the beginning of ideological stakes. The French want to make like the Romans and want for that with the assistance of scientists, to study the model. Thus in 1855, Louis To disavow, librarian of the Sorbonne publish the " Latin Inscriptions of Algeria which gathers more than 4400 inscriptions. They can also justify the conquest since they say not to be not the first conquerors.

At the time of the Post-colonial period, the speech changes, one compares in particular the Algerian combatant to resisting Berber. Under development of the country is put in parallel with the richness of Rome or France which exploit the area. The term of résitant, positively connoted following the 2° world war, plays its part here. One studies resistance to the romanisation then.

Today one tries to leave these discour in particular to put the question of romanized partial, one seeks more the complementarities than the strict oppositions.

Recent research one tempted on the one hand to replace the history of these territories in a Mediterranean context and on the other hand to evaluate the specificity of the African cultures within the imperial framework.

Origin of the various provinces

The beginning of the Roman conquest in Africa dates from the Third Punic War. After the fall of the Carthaginian power in -146, was created the first Roman Province in Africa, named Africa. Modest province of size, less than 25.000 km ², about the North-West of current the Tunisia, it was controlled either by a praetor, or by a propretor. Seven cities however gained their freedom to have taken position against Carthage, of which Utique, Hadrumète, Thapsus and Leptis Minor (Lamta).

Following the civil war opposing César and Pumped, and after the death of this last, Jules César beats his partisans with Thapsus in -46. The alliance of the pompéiens with Juba {{Ier}}, king de Numidie, makes it possible Jules César to annex his territories. A new province is created, the Africa nova, in opposition to the first province, named consequently '' Africa vetus ''. The western border of the province is protected by a walk, given to Publius Sittius, combined César. Four colonies see the installation of Sittius and its mercenaries: Cirta, Rusicade, Milev and Chullu which, if they did not remain independent of the Roman province after the death of Jules César, kept privileges of this past.

At the time of the division of the provinces between the Senate and Auguste in January -27, Africa is joined together in single a senatorial Province, named Africa Proconsulaire. Numidie is attached to this province. However, a legion remains on its territory, the IIIe Auguste, ordered by the proconsul, which makes an exception of it among the senatorial provinces. In 37, the emperor Caligula names a Légat to direct IIIe Auguste legion, which depended hitherto theoretically on the proconsul of the province.

In 40, Caligula makes assassinate Ptolémée, king of Maurétanie, with Lugdunum (Lyon) and appendix its kingdom, which was already de facto under Roman supervision since Auguste. Into 42, Claude divides it into two provinces procuratoriennes, Maurétanie Tingitane in the west and Maurétanie Césarienne in the east.

Under Severe Septime, the province of Numidie is created (before 200), separating this area from the Africa Proconsulaire, and putting fine at the strange situation where legate and proconsul côtoyaient themselves within the same province.

Under the Tétrarchie, Dioclétien engages an administrative reform of the African provinces. The Maurétanie Sifitienne (or Tabienne) is initially created between 284 and 288, thus separating from the Maurétanie Césarienne but the praeses of Cesarean is always responsible for regional defense. Then it is in 303 that the other changes intervene. Numidie is briefly divided in two provinces: Numidie Cirtéenne (capital Cirta) and Numidie Militienne (or Soldier). These two provinces are again joined together in 314. Lastly, Proconsulaire is divided into three administrative units: Proconsulaire (in north), the Byzacène (in the center) and the Tripolitaine (in south-east). The military command is given for all the Diocèse of Africa to a count (except Maurétanie Tingitane which is attached to the diocese of Hispanie). The Vicaire of Africa becomes the senior in rank of all the governors except for the proconsul.

Conquest at the 3rd century

August 1st “Punico-Roman until César, romano-punic then, North Africa became really Roman only under Flaviens. ” This report suggested by Marcel Leglay testifies to the great ruptures that knew Roman Africa, in particular at the time of the political volunteer of the dynasty flavienne. The intervention of Rome in Africa perhaps read thus like a “depunicisation” on a province scale and communities.

Berber kingdoms the day before the Roman conquest

August 1st

The Africa under the Julio-Claudiens

At the conclusion of the Third Punic War, after the victory of -146, “Africa was the price of the victory; and the world was not long in following the fate of Africa” like points out it Florus, historian in the African beginnings. César annexes to the empire the kingdom numide which becomes the province of Africa nova and the indigenous kingdoms are confronted in a new State, with Roman possessions. Sittius, condottiere campanien combined in César, was seen allotting Numidie Western. However, the Roman penetration in North Africa was long and the annexation of the provinces was not followed by their systematic occupation but remained surface. But Rome was not satisfied “to take care on the skin” of the punic kingdom, according to the formula of Theodor Mommsen. The first space subjugated and controlled in-depth by the Romans is a space which knows high degrees of urban civilization: areas of Carthage, Cirta, Sicca Veneria, like twelve colonies of veterans created by Auguste in Maurétanie. The province of Proconsulaire and new the kingdom of Maurétanie are assigned with the defense of North Africa. Under Auguste, the Roman domination will exceed the Fossa regia . Thus, in the first times of the Principat, the Romans contact with the spaces remained in margin of the romanisation, by pushing back the southernmost limits of the province.

The Africa under the Flaviens

The reign of Flaviens constituted for Africa one period of necessary stabilization after the territorial disorders and profits. To follow Marcel of it Glay, it “under the reign of Flaviens that, prepared by far by the acts of Julio-Claudiens, but is precipitated by the work even of Vespasien and of its sons, took place, heavy consequences for the future, the great changes which have affected essential fields of the public life and deprived of the Africans”.

With its advent, Vespasien, which had been proconsul, was badly accommodated by the Africans. The African provinces knew a period of political disturbances previously - incursions of the Garamante S - and the new emperor was to make sure fidelity of legate and the proconsul. The previous year, at the time of the year of the four emperors, the legate of the III Legio Augusta, Clodius Macer, had revolted against Rome and had threatened to deprive Rome of African corn. The priority of Vespasien is the ordering of the provinces and for this reason it renews the leading personnel, by seeking the proconsuls within the rich person Italian families. The romanisation accelerates in the provinces and the communities of the south are subjected to a greater control, even with a setting under supervision. In same logic, one notes a multiplication of the number of promotion legal on the territory of the Africa nova and even beyond, as the creation of the colony of Madaure proves it, with the borders of Numidie, between the end of the reign of Vespasien and the reign of Nerva.

The Africa under the Antonins

August 1st

The Africa under the Tétrarchie

August 1st

The relationship with the tribes

In North Africa, the old sources Greek and Roman distinguish a residential area, a tribal zone where the pastoralism dominates, as well as a populated southernmost zone of nomads, qualified Gétulie. This distinction was devoted by the Historiographie. The Romans exerted a fast control on the first and second zones, but dominated the third little from where a necessary interprovincial distinction Romans of Africa and Roman occupation in Africa. If the place of urban civilization in North Africa were important before and after the Roman conquest, the tribal organization occupies an appreciable situation within the African companies. The relations of the tribes with the representatives of Rome were many and complex because of diversity and of the specificity of the tribes and thus of the attitudes of the Roman capacity. A separation between the areas Eastern - more integrated and romanized and where the influence of the cities is dominating - and Western seems however to be marked in the reports/ratios which maintain Rome with the tribal communities. One cannot seriously analyze the indigenous revolts without taking into account the heterogeneity of the African situations. The phenomenon is lived appreciably differently according to the provinces. This disparity leads Rome to treat variously according to risings. August 1st

Principal tribes of Roman Africa

August 1st Pline Old the counted five hundred and sixteen rabble between the Ampsaga and the “Furnace bridges of the Philènes”, therefore in large Proconsulaire, tribes whose numerical importance and the place in the sources are very variable. The question of the geographical distribution of the tribes and people caused an important bibliography but no chart seems to be able to claim with exhaustiveness nor with the absolute precision.

Urban fact and urban culture

The diffusion of an urban and civic culture in Africa was started well before the Roman conquest. She is known to us by archaeological and epigraphic testimonys as rich as diversified by the way about which one could speak about “Africas” and of the plural character of its urbanization. However, at the origin of this development is a common factor, the conquest and the new reports/ratios - also economic and social policies but - which it causes. One can locate the apogee of urban civilization in North Africa at the second and the first third of the third century. It is related to the prosperity which the provinces until the time sévérienne know, due partly to the development of the market of African oil. It is necessary to distinguish the development and the thickening from the urban network and the legal Romanisation, granting of a legal status per imperial decision at communities more or less integrated into the empire.

Diffusion of the city

The company of the African cities. The emergence of a municipal elite

Main cities of Roman Africa

See too

List of the Latin names of the towns of Africa

African economy

North Africa was regarded of long time a particularly rich ground and as a ground talented Agronome S the following the example of (Magon). Its guardian divinity, Africa, are often represented holding a Horn of plenty and a Boisseau X of Blé ( '' modius '' ) with her feet.

As of the reign of Massinissa, a commercial agriculture developed in Africa. With the eyes of the Roman conquerors, this cereal ground must nourish the Roman people. The production quickly becomes surplus, strongly encouraged by Auguste and his successors. The grounds of the west export their production towards the remainder of the Mediterranean basin and the African corn provides the two-thirds of the Annone intended for the supply of Rome. Africa is also equipped with a rich and varied arboriculture where one finds Vigne S, olive-tree S, pomegranate S and of the plantations of Oasis. The local cultures are quite as important (truffles, pea, vegetables) but the mixed-farming was often sacrificed to the profit of the culture of corn. At the time of the Roman period the African grounds transfer their outputs to grow and the grounds of the South and the West were development. The oldest zones of cultures - Emporia of Tripoliatine and territory of Carthage - were also transformed by the development of cultures of exports strongly remunerative. Thus, the frumentaire production passed for Proconsulaire of approximately 840.000 quintals of corn per annum at the time Cesarean to loan of nine million quintals under Néron. The corn convoys were deposited with Ostie by a corporation of private ship-owners, the Navicularii africani , reorganized by Commode at the second century. The valley of the Medjerda, the back-country of Hadrumète, the soils of Cirta, Numidie Sitifienne and the plains of Volubilis were reserved for the cereal culture. However, it seems that African commercial prosperity was born truly only at the end of the 1st century with the rise of the Oléiculture and to a lesser extent of the vine growing. August 1st

Africans in Rome

August 1st

Crises of the 3rd century

The crisis of 238

In 235, in a context of serious conflict with the Alamans, a coup d'etat brings Maximin Thrace to the capacity. Resulting from the humiliores , badly accepted by the Senate, it returns well it to him while adopting a hostile policy in its connection; but, shining military, it is popular near the soldiers. It devotes all its care to the highway network and its policy answers the military requirements exclusively. This defensive policy requires an increased taxation, tax pressure whose weight explains to some extent the African revolt. The crisis, which was deeply to mark the Roman empire, occurs in January 238 in the area of Thysdrus (El Djem). Inhabitants of the city assassinate the procurator in place which had gone odious to the eyes of the taxpayers and proclaim Gordien, a rich person senator, and his son, emperors. There is evil to distinguish the precise actors from this revolt. According to Hérodien, very critical with respect to Maximin, revolted are primarily young people of the area, definite according to various historians like pertaining to the aristocracy of the city or emanating from the great land and buildings, supported by members of the popular classes related to them by relations of patronage. At all events, this deep dissatisfaction profits from the support with the African population. The movement is not long in being propagated in Italy and in the Eastern provinces, developed by the urban aristocracy which supports the proconsul of Africa Gordien against the Maximin emperor. The civil war is imminent when the Senate joined the camp of dissatisfied and declares the Emperor enemy of the people Roman.

However, the situation is not reversed yet. Capellianus, a senator faithful to Maximin, set up by this last at the post of governor of Numidie, starts a walk on Carthage in order to put at evil the revolt. It has an important military force because he is legate of the IIIe legion Auguste, based in Numidie to contain the presence of the many Moors in the area.

Hérodien, in its History of the Roman Emperors of Gordien Marc-Aurèle III , underlines the cruelty of the repression of Capellianus and gives an account of the gravity of the internal crisis: “ Capellianus, entered Carthage, made perish all those of the first citizens of this city who were escaped combat. It did not save the temples, which it plundered, like all private fortunes and the Treasuries. He traversed then the other cities which had reversed the statues of Maximin, punishes of dead the principal inhabitants and the exile the obscure citizens ”. The author does not fail to specify that these cruel acts are not without political ulterior motive: having an army which is devoted to him, it could according to the circumstances approach the title of Emperor.

Under the popular pressure, in Rome, Gordien III is named by the Senate, at thirteen years, like heir to the Empire. Maximin dies little of time after and the advent of Gordien III puts a term at a short but major crisis. If Gordian III brings back balance in the Empire, its nomination is not without consequence for Africa. Under its reign the IIIe legion Auguste dissolved and is replaced by a “more defensive system” and the mobilization of auxiliary troops, which results in to decrease the Roman influence in the area. In addition to its role of “romanisation” among soldiers whom it integrated, it gave the indication of protective Rome by containing the external elements which could block the African agricultural production.

Risings of the tribes Moor S

The rising of indigenous tribes in Africa is not a new fact of the 3rd century. In addition to the permanent military camps, the sending of detachments of Roman legions, since the 2nd century, is not rare to dam up the recurring revolts of the populations autochtones or gentes , in particular those of the Moors who enjoy from their power a relative autonomy. These events nevertheless will take a new dimension in the years 250-260. In 253 - 254, an insurrectionary wave starts from Maurétanie Césarienne and reached Proconsulaire. The actors of this revolt are generally people which, coming from the interior of the grounds, were much touched by the romanisation. Rising is quickly repressed.

It is in the west of Africa Romaine that the Empire encounters the most problems. In Maurétanie Tingitane, it must show diplomacy by signing peace treaties - fœdus, I - with the tribes. The governor of the province meets regularly the Baquates, principal tribe of the area. Associated with the Macénites or with the Bavares, this tribe constitutes an important rampart with the romanity. The Empire will not end even up losing its hegemony on certain territories, not controlling any more but the coast and the north of the province.

A little more in the east, in Maurétanie Cesarean and Numidie, the insurrection is stronger still and threatens the area of Auzia. The attempt to impose prefects on the tribes is not sufficient. To cure this unfavourable economic situation, the IIIe legion Auguste is reconstituted - between 253 and 258 according to the sources, but it causes a renewal of armed robbery and instability. Proof in is, the governor of Cesarean obtains the load of dux for the whole of the Roman provinces, which shows the gravity of the situation.

A new governor of Numidie, Cornelius Macrinius Decianus, tries to put an end to the crisis towards 260 and is confronted with alliances of tribes. He manages however to push back the Bavares which had been combined with local kings, the Quinquegentanei who, established in the mountainous solid mass of the Djurdjura, had invaded the Numidie in 253, as well as the Fraxinenses. The cruel raids which devastated a good part of the Numidie are finally contained, and the opponents with Roman hegemony must be solved little by little to move back.

The Africa Proconsulaire as for it was touched by the revolts, but is not therefore under exclusive domination of the Romans. In Tripolitaine for example, it is generally the system of delegation which makes act. Opposed to the west of Africa to violent attacks, the Romans prefer to leave unquestionable an autonomy to the autochtones, while preserving their influence on the area. In certain places, as in Byzacène, Rome knew to keep a control quasi-total.

Acceleration in the middle of the 3rd century of the movements of insubordination and revolt of the African tribes is undeniable. It required a reconcentration and a reorganization of Roman military manpower. For as much, one should not see a phenomenon able there to seriously call into question the presence and the hegemony of the Empire. Except the Large revolt of the Moors of Kabylie and the many invasions of Maurétanie Cesarean and Numidie made possible by the temporary disappearance of the legion, Rome could control the situation. The romanisation, all at least in the oriental party of Roman Africa, is not in danger and can continue to develop.

For as much what one has habit to call the “crisis of the {{IIIe}} century” is not finished in Africa. The empire has faced a new adversary for already a few years: Christianity.

Worships and ritual practices

It is delicate to count the whole of the worships traditional present in Roman Africa. With the Roman conquest, the ancient Roman Religion and the traditional religions of Africa, libyques and punic, make be the subject of reinterpretation and demonstration of syncretism. A demonstration of these phenomena is illustrated by the African worship par excellence, that of Saturn says the African who occupies a central place in the Pantheon. The Saturn worship left an important epigraphic and archaeological documentation. It represents according to Marcel Leglay and for Roman Africa, “the best expression of sound africitas”.

The African god following the example of large, the divinities gréco-Romans were comparable while preserving “national” characteristics. The concern of died and to remember to them - multiplication of the epitaphs and the steles in the provinces, the place made with the agrarian worships, ouraniens and chtoniens, the importance attached to the local and domestic gods marked the African religiosity.

Roman Africa passes to the eyes of its contemporaries for a ground of magic; the magic practices there are widespread as in all the empire but maintain the special relationships with many social aspects.

Christianity in Roman Africa

According to Claude Lepelley, Latin Western Christianity was born in North Africa. In the middle of the 2nd century, the Christian communities were already very many and dynamic there. And at the 4th century, Africa saw the birth of Saint Augustin, father of the Church whose thought was to have a determining influence on the Christian Occident with the Middle Ages and at the time modern.

For lack of rather complete documentation, it is difficult to reconstitute the stages and the places of diffusion which preceded the arrival by the Christians in the African provinces. Moreover, they are primarily the Christian sources - in particular those of Tertullien - which make it possible to recall the history of the African Church at the 3rd century, this posing a problem of objectivity obviously. Beyond, the majority of sources of the time are Carthaginian.

One locates the appearance in Africa of the first Christians before the year 180. The first document which enables us to apprehend Christianity in Africa are the Acts of the Martyrs scillitains. It is about the official report of the appearance, on July 17th 180, of ten Christians of a village of Proconsulaire not-localized in front of the proconsul of Africa. Largely minority, the Christians adopt upon the departure an offensive attitude to propagate their faith and move without too much apprehension towards an open conflict with the pagan imperial capacity.

The history of the beginnings of Christianity in Africa is closely related to the person of Tertullien. Born pagan parents, it enters the Christian community of Carthage towards 195 and becomes close to the municipal elite, which will be able to protect it from repression from the authorities. Having received the priesthood, it gets busy in its first writings to fight so that the Christian Church is recognized officially by the Empire.

One can speak, following Tertullien, of “African Christianity” so much this last adopts a specific character, pointing out oneself by his intransigence. In order to progress of many followers and to anchor itself in the African popular life, the Christian doctrines through the writings of Tertullien seek with émanciper of all the pagan institutions which structure the Roman company of the time. It should be seen in this work of writing plus a transcription and a development of the specific problems of a new community that the will of a man to impose on enthusiastic believers doctrines which are not appropriate to them.

The Christians thus refuse to take part in the many ceremonies melting the civic life. In its work Of the idolatry , Tertullien specifies the nature of the activities disadvised to the Christians: they must, for richest, to refuse to take part in the political life of the city by holding any posts, to refuse any agricultural trade which could provide products and animals to the meetings of sacrifices. The Christians should not either exert the professorship which would oblige them to teach the pagan myths and worships.

But what separates and opposes more the Roman authorities and the community of Christians, it is without any doubt the fact that the latter refuse to serve the army of the Empire. Tertullien underlines the difficulty in reconciling the military oath with that pronounced at the time of the baptism. In addition to the omnipresence of the pagan rites in the military life, the greatest dilemma for the Christians is the probability of killing out of the adversaries during the engagements, thing incompatible with the message of the life of Christ: it is a transgression of the sixth command.

This politico-monk choice was at the origin of conflicts sometimes violent one, the Christians being shown to put in danger the city when their refusal of military service was done for one period which required an increased need soldiers. It brought sanctions which sometimes were until the setting with death, creating the situation of Martyr very specific to the Christian religion. The multiplication of the martyrs, their worships and their accounts, as the martyrdom of Perpetuates and Congratulated, was one of the outstanding features of African Christianity. Tertullien itself preaches the suffering and martyrdom like exit towards safety, bringing rather eloquent choices on behalf of the Christians: some chose death “heroic”, as a combatant for example against Egyptian fighters. Martyrdom became an act of resistance and of memory, registered in a commemorative calendar, bases Christian calendar.

Through this doctrinal base extremely strict and difficult to defend in front of a population which does not include/understand most of the time the choices of the Christians, Tertullien seeks to avoid at its community mixing with the pagan rites and habits in order to keep all its specificity and preserving its chances of blossoming. For as much, he does not want to move away from the life of the city, even less that of the Empire. He likes the Empire and is convinced of his benefits in the African provinces.

The Christians however helped, via their intransigent need at the same time for demarcation and assertion within the African company, to found an tense atmosphere between them and the remainder of the population, but especially with the imperial capacity which in front of this threat of division, is not long in reacting.

The Christian doctrines which took foot initially on the African coasts are developed thereafter inside the grounds. If one precisely does not locate the city in which are originating the martyrs scillitains (Scillium, Scillitium? in the area of Carthage), those of Madaure, Miggin and Namphamo, are attested at the same time: the Christians know their first martyrs in a context politico-monk in constant evolution.

The 3rd century knows an important embrittlement of the religious bases of the imperial capacity. Supposed being protected from the gods, the myth of the emperor who is located at the top of the men is given in doubt by the pagan ones, in particular after the death of Dèce to the combat, in 251. The culprits are quickly found: by their impiété, the Christians are shown to have caused the anger of the gods.

Dèce itself had already founded this concept of “scapegoat” during what is called the “Persécution of Dèce”, of 249 with 251. Roman persecution, the first official attack against the African Church, is ratified by an edict promulgated as of 249 which obliges the Christians to request for the safety of the emperor, and to proceed while following to sacrifices or drinkings.

This news gives to force the Christians to a choice. Several attitudes are raised: some follow the instructions of the authorities relayed by the African cities and yield with the edict, going until the sacrifices of animals - thing formally prohibited by their dogma -; others for which it is inconceivable to disavow the Gospel prefer to flee; others still choose to declare their dissatisfaction with the population openly, putting their life in danger.

The Roman authority by formulating this edict divided the Christian community which following this crisis shows all its intransigence once again. Those which yielded at the requests of Dèce and took part in supplications - the lapsi - see very badly accommodated by the “resistant ones” when comes the hour from their rehabilitation. The bishops who “sinned” for the majority are forgiven but see themselves refused the return to their function. Persecution generated such a crisis within the African Church that the council of Carthage proposes, in 256, to rename the instigators so that they become again pure. It runs up there violently against the bishop of Rome for which this double baptism is simply inconceivable because it die-crédibiliserait the crowned and single rite of the bishop. ( See also Donatisme )

After a short period of calm, persecutions start again in 257 under the impulse of Valérien. This Roman senator, near to the hostile elites to Christianity, employs a new tactic to weaken the Christians. He decides to cut the Christian elite of his base. The governors of province have as an order to exile any bishop or clerk who would refuse to devote themselves to the sacrificial rites. Thus Cyprien de Carthage, great figure of African Christianity is put in exile; others are condemned to the mines. Persecution becomes bloody later one year when Cyprien and other clerks, victims of new Roman measurements, are condemned to died and are decapitated.

It is necessary to await the death of Valérien in 260 so that the calm reign again in Africa. His/her son Gallien shows himself much more reconciling: he stops the continuations against the Christians and promulgates an edict of tolerance: The small peace of the Church. This peaceful cohabitation makes it possible the African Church to develop in the provinces and to increase the number of its faithful. Dioclétien, in 284 at the beginning of the Tétrarchie, was to cause the return of the persecutions.

From Roman Africa in the Arab Maghreb

August 1st

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