Risorgimento - SpeedyLook encyclopedia

Historical context

Before the Napoleonean period , the idea of unit of the Italy was out of prospect after the fall for Rome and division in several States which followed for the feudal period and the Renaissance.

Effects of the enlightened despotism and the illuminism

At the 18th century, enlightened despotism and l'" illuminisme" modify the Italian company and ensure the bases of its future unification. These reforming movements are unequally active according to the sovereigns of the various Italian states.

In Lombardy, under Austrian control, the reforms of Marie-Therese and Joseph II, institute the land register, remove the corporations and of many religious houses, abolish the Inquisition and censures it. In Tuscan, the large-duke Pierre-Léopold (the future emperor Léopold II) made disappear the feudal mode, institutes the equality in front of the tax, abolishes the Enquiry, the censure and the capital punishment. In the kingdom of the Deux-Siciles, the kings bourbons, Charles Ier and Ferdinand IV, if they do not make disappear the great property latifundiaire under exploited, cuts down the legal privileges of the having classes. On the other hand the Duchy of Modena, the kingdom of Piedmont, the Papal States, the republics of Venice and Genoa takes part little in this change.

These reforms reinforce social antagonisms. The workmen, protected by the corporations from now on are submitted to their employers. The poor peasants see private use of the communal grounds monopolized by the land middle-class. This one benefits from the sale of the ecclesiastical fields or takes with lease the latifundias for better exploiting them thanks to the use of a rural labor whose poverty develops. The increase in the production does not follow that of the population (7 million additional inhabitants between 1715 and 1796) the farm prices fly away what supports the producers and the merchants. These social categories will be favorable to the French revolution guaranteeing their properties and equal acces to the politico-administrative functions and they will be the engines of Risorgimento.

Italy during the first years of the French revolution

The upheavals of revolutionary France had echoes in Italy. After the proclamation of the republic in France (September 1792) of the republican conspiracies take place in Turin, in Sardinia, in Naples, in Bologna, in Genoa in 1794, and Palermo in 1795. They are vigorously repressed by the sovereigns (the king of Sardinia is the father-in-law of the two brothers of Louis XVI and the queen of Naples Marie-Caroline is the sister of Marie-Antoinette).

The urban or agricultural workmen benefitted from it to make strongly hear their socio-economic claims: there were rural insurrections in Savoy in 1790, Piedmont and in the Abruzzi in 1793, in Basilicate in 1795.

But it is the direct presence of French from 1796 which will accelerate the change.

Idea of national State

The liberal ideas, inspired by the spirit of the Lights and the French revolution, supplied with a national romantic ideal and a desire to improve the socio-economic situation of the peninsula while benefitting from the appropriatenesses offered of the industrial revolution and by exceeding its fragmentation in monarchical States supported by Austrian hegemony, pushed also the revolutionary Italian to develop an idea of Patrie and to wish the birth of a national State with the image of other European powers like the France, the Spain and the the United Kingdom.

But which will take the head of the movement of unification? Which will be the architecture of the Italy news? For Mazzini, popular rising will establish the republic. In its work He primato moral E civil degli Italiani (1843) the abbot Gioberti preaches the idea that the pope must regenerate Italy (civilizing mission of the Catholic church) and chair a confederation of the Italian states. For Cesare Balbo in Speranze d' Italia (1843) or Massimo d' Azeglio in Degli ultimi casi di Romagna (1846) it is the king of Sardinia which must gather Italy.

A big factor: French occupation of the Revolution and the Empire

With regard to the social context and economic, that was in particular influenced by the operations of the French Army in Italy (Campagne of Italy (1796-1797)), which had left a strong print in the culture and the Italian economy.

As from 1796, the French Army, having reversed the weak preexistent States (Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, Austrian Lombardy, Duchies of Lucques, Modena, Venice, Grand Duchy of Tuscany) settles in the flat Po. It creates republics sisters there on the French model (République cispadane in October 1796, République ligurienne in October 1797, République cisalpine in July 1797). After the French reverses of 1799, the countryside of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1800 fact of returning for 15 years Italy in the French orbit. In January 1802, part of these territories becomes the Italian République, of which Napoleon Bonaparte is the president, transform in March 1805 in Royaume of Italy, with for king same the Napoleon 1st. Another part is annexed to the Empire in the form of departments. Of this fact the chart of Italy is simplified, it is a first step towards the unit, even if this one is far from being realized. That upsets the way of living, brings certainly novel ideas. In the Italian republic the sale of the goods of the Catholic church, the introduction of the Civil code, the agreement with the pope (1803) who while conferring on the Catholic church a privileged situation the support by organic articles, the market of the military supplies, the installation of an administration copied on that of consular France then imperial, satisfy the middle-class and part of the aristocracy Italian. A good part of Italian live then within a unified framework. In the Royaume of Naples Joseph Bonaparte then Joachim Murat makes some in the same way.

In particular the economic activities underwent the consequences of the shortage of labor; indeed the French had introduced the conscription, to feed the Large army, and that moved away for years the most valid young people from the agricultural work like trades from the craftsmen; if one adds to that the taxes of war, the military constraints and the other drudgeries with load of the communal cases, it is not difficult to include/understand the miserable state of the life of the people in north. To make to an example the historian Balletti speaking about Reggio Emilia, capital of the Republic cispadane, indicates at the time a global population of 50 000 people, of which 30 000 officially recorded like “beggars”. Spoliations of the religious communities and the dissolution of the religious orders were a permanent objective of the governments Jacobins, which through the Décrets of expropriation confiscated gold, money and works of art as contribution. Another indicator of the difficulties social and economic was the beginning of the emigration since north, Piedmont and Venezia at the head (see L.Carpi, R. Bacchelli); the principal destinations were initially the France and Suisse then Americas.

Papacy is stripped of its territories by the French who create the Roman republic in February 1798. The French Army, ordered by Manhes also extended to the south, founding in 1799 the Neapolitan République which lasted a few months thanks to the military presence of the French, until, the French withdrawal and the popular reaction ( Sanfedisti ) organized in the name of the defense of the catholic faith put an end to the experiment Jacobins. Then, between 1806 and 1815, the Royaume of Naples was again under French domination (with Joseph Bonaparte then Joachim Murat as kings), although the control of the distant provinces was never total and the pockets of resistance never subdued. The southernmost climate and the good health of the trade made it possible quickly to erase the damage due to the French occupation, which preserved the southernmost population of the emigration before the unification.

The presence of the French in Italy had provided the foundations of a social division (greater laicization in north) and economic (greater richness in the south) which supported the south. With these first steps, in the context of the national interests of France and the England, the political unification under control of the friendly Kingdom of Sardinia of France, seemed to become the easiest solution, compared to an autonomous federation of Italian States which would not have brought any advantage to the States of North.

Disputed monarchical restorations

See also: Contenu=Voir the article [[chronology of the unification of Italy]] for the years 1814 to 1847.

In 1814-1815, the French defeat brings back to Italy the former sovereigns. Austria dominates the north of the peninsula. The emperor of Austria east king of the lombard-Venetian Kingdom, François IV of Habsbourg becomes again duke of Modena and Ferdinand III of Habsbourg large-duke of Tuscany. The duchy of Parma is given to the archduchess Marie-Louise, woman of Napoleon i. Austrian garrisons are installed in the north of Legations in the Papal States. The Bourbons find the Royaume of Deux-Siciles with Ferdinand IV, and the duchy of Lucques is entrusted to the infante of Spain Marie-Louise de Bourbon. The kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia increases republic of Genoa. The chart of Italy only is very slightly simplified compared to that of 1789. Italy remains well according to the word of Metternich that a geographical simple expression . However except at Modena, in Piedmont and in the Papal States, one preserves most of the Napoleonean legislation and even one keeps part of the political personnel which had served French.

After the Congrès of Vienna the French influence in the Italian political life appeared in the diffusion of the ideas and the literary journals. Appeared middle-class living rooms which under pretext of literary exchanges, became true clubs of the Anglo-Saxon type, to be used as cover at secret societies; exiled Italian was used then as contacts with the foreign powers; let us quote Antonio Panizzi exiled with London. Among these subversive companies, that of the Carbonari emerges. In 1814 this company organized revolutionary movements with Naples.

In 1820, with Naples, a rising carbonarist takes place under the direction of the general Pepe. The king Ferdinand I {{er}} must grant a new constitution (copied on the French constitution of 1791). But the sicilian nobility makes secession and the popular support is non-existent. The king calls upon the Austrians who intervene in the name of the Sainte Alliance (Conférence of Troppau (October-December 1820) and of Laybach (January-May 1821). The constitution is abolished and the king made hunting for the carbonari.

In March 1821, in Piedmont, the garrison of Alexandria, influenced by the Carbonari, is raised. One of the leaders is Santorre di Santarosa. Rising benefits from the absence of the Austrians occupied to reduce the Neapolitan rebellion and seems to profit from the benevolence of Charles-Albert (heir to the crown). This last, appointed regent because of the absence of his cousin the new king Charles-Felix, grants a constitution. But the king of return cancels the constitution and fact call to the Sainte Alliance. The movement fails at the beginning of April.

In the Papal States, the pope Leon XII represses the protestors.

In 1831, a revolutionary new wave shakes central Italy. The carbonari resident in Paris, related to the liberals who have just made a success of the Révolution of July, think that the new French government chaired by Jacques Laffitte will discourage an Austrian intervention in Italy. In Rome, in December 1830, the two wire of Louis Bonaparte, Napoleon-Louis and Louis-Napoleon plot; they are expelled. In February 1831, the duke of Modena, François IV must flee; he is the same for the duchess Marie-Louise in Parma. February 26th assemblies of delegated revolted areas proclaims the Plain Provinces of Italy. But the new French government chaired by Casimir Périer (March 1831) withdraws his support for the Italians, leaving the free track to an Austrian intervention. The dukes are restored on their thrones. Revolutionists, whose Menotti, is carried out. In Rome, the pope Gregoire XVI and the cardinal Bernetti restore the absolutism and in 1832, crush a rising in the Marches and the Légations. Until 1838, French and Austrian troops will station there to choke any movement.

First War of independence

See also: Contenu=Voir the article [[Chronology of the unification of Italy]] for the years 1848 and 1849.

In 1848, following the insurrections developing with Palermo, Metz-native and Milan and in the wave of the revolutionary movements shaking Europe, starts the first war of Indépendance, declared in Austria by Charles-Albert of Sardinia which was with the head of an alliance between the Royaume of Sardinia and other States Italian. Giuseppe Garibaldi and Giuseppe Mazzini returns in Italy to take part in the revolt, but the reception of the Savoy S is little enthousiaste.
After some victories, of which those of Goito and Peschiera LED Kept, the pope recalls his troops, followed by other States. The Royaume of Deux-Siciles also decides to be withdrawn, but the general Guglielmo Pepe refuses to turn over to Naples and it joined Venice to take part in its defense vis-a-vis the counter-offensive autrichienne.
Indeed, Ferdinand II of Deux-Siciles changed attitude, concerned about the turning of the events in Sicily. The royal Troupes had held only thestrong one of Messine.
Sicily, recreating the old Kingdom (1816 absorbed in the new denomination of the old southernmost States), had sent a delegation to Turin to offer the crown to a Prince " sabaudo". Charles-Albert, although the Neapolitan ally is, so much per quantity than by quality, the main thing, maintained a position “wait and see” which disgusted the Bourbon deeply.

In 1849, the Large Duke of Toscane Léopold II gives up Florence, which passes under a provisional government. The Roman République is proclaimed with Rome, controlled by a triumvirate to which belonged Giuseppe Mazzini. The city, defended by Giuseppe Garibaldi, is attacked by the French troops which encircle it. With the fall of the Roman Republic, many revolutionists are constrained with the exile. Garibaldi finds refuge in 1850 with New York at Antonio Meucci.

The Piedmontese one, remained only, are beaten by the Austria with Custoza and are obliged to accept a Armistice forcing them to give up the Lombardy and to accept the borders of pre-war period, such as defined in 1815 with the Congrès of Vienna. After the armistice, only Brescia resists the Austrian troops a long time and all Lombardy turns over under Austrian control. Following the armistice, Charles-Albert of Sardinia abdicates in favor of his/her son Victor-Emmanuel II of Savoy. Even the town of Venice, which under the command of Daniele Manin had rebelled against Austria in 1848 by proclaiming its independence, finally had to go after a long resistance, exhausted by the Austrian seat, the hunger and an cholera epidemic. Thus the first war of independence ended.

Second War of independence

See also: Contenu=Voir articles [[Chronology of the unification of Italy]], [[Sardinian Participation in the Crimean War]] and [[Plebiscites for the reunification in Italy]] for the years 1859 and 1860.

The Count de Cavour, Prime Minister for the Royaume of Sardinia in 1852 starts a series of reforms and approaches to the France and the the United Kingdom with an aim of sparing a place among the European powers more the progressists. For this purpose, it sends in 1855 a body of Bersaglieri in the Crimean War to the sides of France and the United Kingdom.

It is in 1859 that the hostilities between the Kingdom of Sardinia burst, combined with the French Empire and the Empire of Habsbourgs.La war was short and glorious. Napoleon III ordered in person the French Armies sent beyond the Alps.

It was the Battle of Magenta (June 4th, 1859), Solférino (June 24th, 1859), then Villafranca (July 11th, 1859)… Terrible battles, which left in Napoleon III, winner, the choice to propose to the Austrians an armistice.

Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi returns in Italy and Garibaldi is charged to organize a body of volunteers, the Alpine hunters, to attack the Austrians in the pre-Alps. These volunteers beat the Austrians with Varèse and Like, while the French and the Piedmontese one carry it with Magenta and enter to Milan.

The victory of Piedmontese and the French in Lombardy gives a new dash to the national unit. The large-duke of Toscane flees in Austria, the duke of Parma takes refuge in Suisse and the duke of Modena finds refuge in the Austrian camp. With Bologna a hostile provisional government with the State Pontifical constitutes and proclaims the union with the Royaume of Sardinia. Other territories under the control of the Eglise make some in the same way.

Following the war and political and diplomatic operations which resulted from it, of the plebiscites involve the union with the Kingdom of Sardinia of part of Lombardy, of Tuscany, of Romagna, Parma and Modena. However, to still be able to count on the support of the France, the Kingdom of Sardinia is constrained to yield the Savoy and Nice to the French.

In the Kingdom of Deux-Siciles, the young person François II which succeeded Ferdinand II, his father died prematurely, is an easy prey for the advisers interested in the cause of the unification. He does not realize of the gravity of the situation and always believes in the policy of moderation, letting the carbonari infiltrate even the army. Such a generosity will cause to encourage its enemies and to discourage its faithful. At the beginning of April 1860, the revolts of Metz-native and Palermo, although subdued, convince of the need for an intervention in the south, already tried at the time of preceding unloadings (Fratelli Bandiera, Carlo Pisacane).

The May 6th 1860 Giuseppe Garibaldi embarks on two steamers bought by the Sardinians with the Rubattino ship-owner of Quarto with 1033 volunteers among whom only 5 Southerners (from where the name of Expédition of the Thousand ). After a stopover with Talamone, it unloads the May 11th close to Marsala around 1 p.m., between two British ships which were with the perfume and which cover the unloading. The Piedmontese diplomacy joint with the protests of the European countries who denounce the act of piracy of this “gangster of Garibaldi”. Such was the legal status of Garibaldi to the eyes of Piedmont. In Marsala, the reception is not that hoped. Nevertheless, the forces at disposal of Garibaldi increase thanks to the successive unloadings soldiers of the Sardinian army, as a civilian and with the correct documents, and then with the incorporation of the released prisoners. To escape surrounding, the forces of Garibaldi return in the country, protected by the Picciotti from the baron Sant' Anna. While the general bourbon Lanza retains his troops in the barracks, Garibaldi continues its projection and occupies Palermo and seizes the gold of the Banque of Sicily, useful to convince the undecided ones. During this time, Alexandre Dumas runs to organize the propaganda of forwarding by taking the direction of several newspapers. The walk of the army of Garibaldi exists initially in the propaganda sheets before becoming effective with the retirement of the Bourbons ordered by officers félons. It is only when the retirement reached Salerno that the king François II, realizing of the treason of his generals, puts himself at the head of his army to defend his Kingdom nozzle and nails in the plain of Volturno. François II leaves Naples to save the capital of the destruction by leaving instructions to the ex Minister for the police force become Prime Minister Liborio Romano. This last, already to the pay of the liberals, invites the hero in the city where it will enter by train the September 7th 1860, accompanied by some officers and accommodated by the little by people that the camorristi succeeded in gathering.

During this time, two Piedmontese bodies ordered by Manfredo Fanti and Enrico Cialdini enter the Papal States by north, and face the general Lamoricière with Castelfidardo, close to Ancône the September 18th. The October 9th, the command of the Piedmontese troops is directly assured by Victor-Emmanuel II.

Victor-Emmanuel II and Giuseppe Garibaldi meet with Teano. The king of Sardinia takes the command of the troops and dissolves the army of Garibaldi while this last is withdrawn with Caprera.

The resistance of François II to Capoue and on the Volturno is vain and the King gathers his troops in the fortress of Gaète. No European power comes to him to assistance and only France protects the fortress from the sea. When even France, convinced by Cavour, moves away its ships, Cialdini can put an end to the seat. It does not give up however poisoning drinking water of the fortress. It is on such a mean action that is carried out the Italian unit. Only Rome and Venice did not belong yet to the Savoy S.

The February 18th 1861, Victor-Emmanuel II brings together with Turin the deputies of all the States which recognize its authority. The March 17th, it takes the title of King d' Italie. The Italy adopts a Constitution Libérale, based on that adopted by the Royaume of Sardinia in 1848.

Third war of Independence (1866)

for the years 1865 and 1866

At the time of the War austro-Prussian of 1866, the Austria and the Prussia disputed supremacy on the German States. The Royaume of Italy there saw the occasion to seize the Venezia under Austrian control and is allied with Prussia. Austria tried to convince the Italian government to accept Venezia in exchange of non-intervention. However, the April 8th, Italy and Prussia signed an agreement concerning the acquisition of Venezia by Italy and the latter declared the war in Austria the June 20th. In the context of the Italian unification, the War austro-Prussian is known under the name of Third war of Independence after the Première (1848) and the Deuxième (1859 - 1861).

Victor Emmanuel put himself at the head of an army and crossed the Mincio to invade Venezia, whereas Garibaldi was to invade the the Tyrol with its Alpine hunters. The scenario turned to the catastrophe. The Italian army ran up against the Austrians with Custoza the June 24th and undergoes a demolished cuisante. The July 20th, the Regia Marina lost the battles of Smoothed. Italy was however not in the cords. Indeed, the following day the voluntary troops of Garibaldi beat the Austrians with the Bataille of Bezzecca, and moved towards Thirty.

During this time, Prussian the Prime Minister, Bismarck, considered that its war was finished and signed an armistice with Austria the July 26th. Italy, released by its allied, deposited officially the weapons the August 21st. Garibaldi accepted the order to stop its projection and he answered by a telegram of only one word: Obbedisco (I obeyed).

In spite of the little of success met by Italy, the victory of Prussia over the northern face with Sadowa has constrained Austria to yield Venezia. At the time of the peace treaty signed to Vienna the October 12th, the emperor François-Joseph tried an operation by yielding it to France. The goal was to keep it out of the Italian hands while courting France and thus to break the relations between Victor-Emmanuel and Napoleon III. It was a failure because Napoleon III yielded Venezia to Italy the October 9th in exchange of the prior agreement of Italy concerning the annexation of the Savoy by France.

The Austrian forces tried to be opposed to the Italians, but without success. Victor-Emmanuel entered to Venice triumphantly.

Rome

For the years 1867 and following

Catalog of films

1963 - the Cheetah of Luchino Visconti with Alain Delon, Burt Lancaster and Claudia Cardinale (Palm of gold to the Cannes festival 1963)

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