Researcher

This article relates to the content of the trade of researcher in his general information. For a talk of the statutes of researcher full-time, to see the article Enquiring (titular employment) and Enquiring post-doctoral.

An enquiring (fem. enquiring) nominates a person whose trade consists in making research. It is difficult to determine the trade of researcher well so much the fields of research is diversified and implies in practice important differences in this trade. Thus, for a long time, researcher was not seen like a trade, but a simple qualifier. The Manual of Frascati, published by OECD, gives a definition of the enquiring which reflects the diversity of the situations: “Specialist working with the design or creation in knowledge, products, processes, methods and new systems and with the management of the projects concerned. ”

History

See also the historical section of the article Scientific research and the article History of sciences.

The appearance of a enquiring trade specific of lies within the scope of the specialization of the tasks within our companies. Previously, the inventions and the Connaissance S were the fruit of experiments of each and everyone to the daily newspaper. With Francis Bacon, at the 17th century, the Occident starts to become aware of the economic interest and policy of an organized research. The foundation of Academies of Science attests interest incipient from the State S for work of the researchers and brings a framework of exchange and a certain social recognition to them. This evolution of the social place of the researchers is indissociable of the evolution of the nature even of the research task, and in particular the progressive development of a scientific Méthode, starting from the Révolution copernician.

The specific uses of scientific researcher, financed by the State or private companies to devote itself to their work, however only appear well later, during the 19th century, and develop only at the 20th century. The scientific research was before only one activity additional with a principal trade, for example that of teacher or Engineer.

Practical and evaluation

The exercise of the trade of researcher rests on requirements of innovation, of imagination but also of reflection, know-how, knowledge, and technical capabilities. These last conditions develop only with the personal experience and confrontation with the questions raised by research. The European Charte of the researcher defines basic principles of exercise of this trade.

To communicate and file the results obtained, the researcher the publishes, inter alia in re-examined specialized in his sphere of activity. Before publication, the articles are subjected to a Reading panel. This committee itself consists of researchers working on related questions. Other means of communication, allowing a faster circulation of the results, include the scientific seminars, the scientific Congrès S and the pre-publications.

In kind to prevent that its work is not disturbed by private interests, it is necessary to guarantee the independence of the researchers with respect to political pressures or economic. Guarantees of fixity of employment were thus introduced for part of the researchers. That includes the concept of Tenure in the Anglo-Saxon world, and the use of the statute of Fonctionnaire in France (see on this subject the article Autonomie of science).

The technicality of the results, and the nature even of the Basic research, make that it is difficult to evaluate their short-term relevance and their range. That poses a problem for the decision makers, who wish to be able to control the cogency of the expenditure of research. In order to provide indicators of effectiveness of the work of a researcher, various techniques of evaluation of research were established, which can in certain cases present perverse effects.

Career of a researcher

Obtaining a high level diploma is not always absolutely necessary to the continuation of a career of researcher. In company, an employee without specific initial training can, with the liking of the evolutions of career and according to his competences, to become researcher within this company. Such a trajectory is not either impossible in a research center, including in a public research center, which can accommodate scientists having been the proof of their talents independently of their initial training. In France, the accession even with the statute of researcher of the public office remains conditioned with obtaining a doctorate, but the L612-7 article of the Code of education provides that this diploma can be delivered on “presentation of a whole of original scientific work. ”

However, in general, the career of a researcher really starts after obtaining a Doctorat. In company, obtaining a Master or all Diplôme of equivalent level can be enough to begin in a career of researcher (it is more particularly true in France).

Doctorate

See also: Doctorate

The first stage of the researcher is to prepare a thesis to obtain a Doctorat. The rank of doctor is obtained after presentation of an original work of Recherche in front of an academic jury made up within an establishment of Higher education.

The researcher Doctorant can complete this work within a Research laboratory of a public corporation or a Entreprise in collaboration with researchers of the academic world. Administratively, it can be paid of a university, an institution of research or an organization of state, for one generally limited duration. The heading of its function can be varied: attache of research, allocatee of research, research assistant, preparer, etc In certain disciplines (generally letters and social sciences), the researcher doctorand can exert his research tasks without being in work contract; he can then have a complementary paid activity. The researcher doctorand can, according to the countries, being in charge of lesson. The situation of the researcher doctorand is thus partly dependant with the specific Législation rules to each country, of preparation and sanction of this rank, in particular with regard to the duration as a researcher doctorand.

After obtaining the doctorate, the young doctor can turn to uses of the private sector, or candidater with employment in academic research, as a researcher or that teacher-researcher.

Uses of researcher

See also: Enquiring (titular employment)

After obtaining the doctorate, the researcher can occupy the function of Chargé with research. In charge one of research dedicates the integrality of its time to research activities. It is in general invested in one or two projects in collaboration with young researchers preparing a doctorate. It can occupy a station on the basis of Limited time contract (CDD) or unspecified (TDCI), or even a station of Fonctionnaire.

The stations of in charge of research at limited duration generally have as an initial heading in the Anglo-Saxon system " post-doctoral researcher" , " post-doctoral fellow" , in French " Enquiring post-doctoral " (the qualifier being not very relevant because any post of researcher, except doctorand, can be obviously qualified of " post-doctoral") and literally " incorporated post-doctoral" (in the direction first of the adjective substentivé " agrégé" for fellow, c.a.d. which is incorporated with the regular member before becoming it, without reference to the contest of external aggregation, specific to France). The heading can evolve/move with the experiment in " post-doctoral senior researcher" then " research fellow" without there not existing of international nomenclature to see national well defined. The stations in CDD can have one duration varying from one to ten years, according to for example the duration of the research projects on which they are dependant. In certain country, like the France, in charge one of research can be directly committed like Fonctionnaire.

In the Anglo-Saxon system, there exist only seldom permanent posts of researcher full-time, the stations in TDCI or with Tenure are generally posts of teacher-researcher. In France, on the other hand, the establishments of search for type EPST have exclusively stations of Fonctionnaire S dedicated to research.

In the research services of the companies, a station of in charge of research can be also entitled engineer of research.

After several years of career, in charge one of research can become Research director. The research director, who can be entitled " senior research fellow" or " research professor" in the systems Anglo-Saxon, is brought to manage more important projects and to devote less time to the daily research task. It then occupies generally administrative positions of department, group, Foreman, Research unit.

Out of the field of the applied sciences, a researcher can also exert a work complementary to independent manner (nonpaid), through the publication of books or the realization of studies or report/ratio.

The researcher can be in charge of lesson in a reduced time volume, generally in his direct speciality.

Uses of teacher-researcher

See also: Teacher-researcher

The Teacher-researcher can be recruited after having been in charge of research, or to be recruited directly after its doctorate, that is to say initially on a station at limited duration, or directly on a station at unlimited duration (TDCI or civil servant). The teacher-researcher at the beginning of career can be in French, " charged with cours" , " charged with enseignements" , " temporary attache of teaching and recherche" , " University lecturer " (civil servant) and in English generally " lecturer" then " reader" or " senior lecturer" (reader, French heading of the Middle Ages kept for the stations of " readers of langues" in France) or in the USA " instructor" , " adjunct professor" , " assistant professor". The teacher-researchers at the beginning of career are generally in charge of lesson in the form of directed Travaux and with Practical works. Their research activity is overall of comparable nature that of in charge of research with a more restricted time quantity.

At the end of a certain number of years, the teacher-researcher can become " Professor ". The professor ensures in general of the lectures, the direction and the judgment of the theses of doctorates. In the Anglo-Saxon system, the professor is initially " associate professor" (with Tenure ), then " (full) professor". The professor also exerts administrative offices comparable with those of a research director or many teaching administrative offices (person in charge of a Training cycle, Doyen of faculty, chief of establishment of higher education, etc).

In certain country, the teacher-researcher must show his aptitude to exert the functions of reader of doctorate in front of an academic jury professors, before being able to postulate as professor: in France, it is about the Accreditation to supervise research which opens the right to the candidature for a station of Professor of the universities. A post of professor can be associated with the specific concepts of " chaire" or of " Tenure ".

Additional activities

In addition to its research activity, the researchers can have to develop other activities.

Appraise

The researcher is more and more brought to appear in the public debate, that it is as a Expert to guide the political decisions, or because its research themselves causes a debate, for reasons ethical S or for questions of Risque (see on this subject the article on the Precaution principle).

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