Rembrandt

Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn , usually indicated under the name of Rembrandt (July 15th, 1606 - October 4th, 1669) is generally regarded as one of largest the painters of the Histoire of the Art European Baroque , and most important of the painters Dutch of the 17th century. Rembrandt also carried out Gravure S and Dessin S. It lived for one period that the historians call the Siècle of Dutch gold (roughly the 17th century), during which culture, science, trade and political influence of powerful Holland reached their apogee.

Rembrandt produced approximately 600 paintings, 300 etchings and 2000 drawings. Its taste for the Autoportrait S (it carried out a hundred throughout its career of it) enables us to follow its personal evolution, as well physical as emotional. The painter represents himself without concession, with his defects and his wrinkles.

One of the major characteristics of its work is the use of the light and the Obscurité (technical of the Clearly-obscure ), which attracts the glance by the set of supported contrasts. The scenes which it paints intense and alive, are deprived of the formalism which one could meet at some of his contemporaries. It is not a painter of the beauty or richness, he can show the compassion and the humanity, which arise in the expression of its characters, who are sometimes poor and old. Its topics of predilection are the Portrait (and the Autoportrait S) as well as biblical paintings. It did few Paysage S (that less true for work is engraved) or mythological topics.

Its close family - Saskia, her first wife, her son Titus and his second Hendrickje wife - appear regularly in her paintings, whose inspiration is generally mythological, biblical or historical. Rembrandt also likes to represent scenes of the daily life, social groups.

Biography

Eighth child (on ten) of a father miller on the Rhine (Harmen Gerritszoon) and of a mother girl of baker, Rembrandt was born on July 15th 1606 with Leyde, with the United Provinces (current Netherlands). He passes his childhood and the beginning of his life of painter in his birthplace, after having studied Latin and having carried out a short passage to the Université of Leyde, where he was registered but where he probably never studied.

In 1621, it decides to be devoted entirely to painting and becomes apprentice in the system of normal training in a local artist, Jacob van Swanenburgh. After six months of training to Amsterdam in the most important Master of this time, Pieter Lastman, it opens a workshop with Leyden which it probably divides with his friend Jan Lievens of Leyde, him also former apprentice of Lastman, which probably initiates it with the Eau-forte. In 1627, Rembrandt teaches already with apprentices, the first was Gerald Dou which entered its workshop in 1628, and probably started with the preparation of the panels and fabrics and paintings, which was done everything with the hand in the workshops of the painters.

In 1631, it acquired a solid reputation, which is worth to him several orders of portraits coming from Amsterdam where it settles in an important merchant of art, Hendrick Uylenburgh of which it will marry the niece Saskia Uylenburgh on June 22nd 1634. It will introduce it into the circles of the high society and will support its reputation, which will create many orders - more than 50 - portraits of rich people in the years 1631-34. Rembrandt also carried out several portraits of his wife between 1633 (National Gallery off Art of Washington D.C) and 1634 (Musée of the Hermitage, Saint-Pétersbourg).

In 1639, Rembrandt and Saskia move to live a house cossue (which will become the Museum of Rembrandt) of Jodenbreestraat, in the Jewish district. Three their children die shortly after the birth. The fourth, Titus, born in 1641 will reach the adulthood. Saskia dies of tuberculosis in 1642 at the 30 years age. The artistic top of this period is the Night round (De Nachtwacht, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam), finished in 1641, measuring 440 X.500 cm (decreased later), by making the portrait of 18 members of a civil militia, in a revolutionary dynamic way for its time.

Between 1643 and 1649, Rembrandt shares then his life with his maidservant Geertje Dircx, young person widowed without child, who deals with the Titus baby. Geertje starts and gains a lawsuit against Rembrandt on the subject of promise of marriage, but Rembrandt makes it lock up in a lunatic asylum. He must then face a certain number of difficulties. Its production of paintings continues, but its production of etchings assembles and is a great business success and international.

In 1645, Hendrickje Stoffels, younger than Geertje, becomes a new maidservant of the house, and replaces Geertje like concubine. In 1654 they have a girl, Cornelia, which is worth a blame of the Church to them which reproaches them “for living in the sin”.

Rembrandt living above his means, buying parts of art, costumes of which it is often useful in its paintings, does not manage any more to honor his debts in 1656. He must then sell his house and be satisfied with a more modest home on Rozengracht. Hendrickje and Titus install a shop of art there to make live the family, because there, in spite of the fame of Rembrandt who continues to grow, the orders decrease of number, but not in importance: for example prince Antonio Ruffo de Sicilie orders three great paintings as from 1653-57, but a large fabric in 1660 (the Claudius Civilis , largest of its work) for the new town hall of Amsterdam, is refused and turned over (maintaining in the national museum of Stockholm). He however survives disappearances of Hendrickje (deceased in 1663) and Titus, died in 1668. His/her Cornelia daughter, her beautiful Marguerite daughter and her Titia little girl are at her sides when he dies on October 4th 1669. Desilvered, it is buried in the church of Westerkerk, where more no trace of the burial remains today.

Influences

Its first Master, Jacob van Swanenburgh, possibly teach him the technique from engraving to the Eau-forte.

Rembrandt was the pupil of Pieter Lastman for six months in Amsterdam. Lastman was a painter of biblical, mythological and historical scenes. It is considered that it influenced the work of Rembrandt much, by giving him a direction of the composition and by showing him the sources of inspiration which could be the history and the religion. Lastman had studied itself in Italy at the beginning of the century and undoubtedly brought to Rembrandt techniques of this country, like the contribution of beeswax in the oil-base paint to add relief and luminosity to it.

Pupils

Rembrandt had several pupils who were success:

Many works usually allotted to Rembrandt have a paternity now disputed by the experts, in particular those of Rembranst Research Project, a co-operation of six Dutch university professors. Are they its paintings, of those of its pupils, or common achievements?

Periods

  • For the period of Leyde (1625-1631), the influence of Lastman is most outstanding. Paintings are of modest size but very detailed (costumes, jewels). The treated topics are primarily monks and allegorical.
  • On its arrival in Amsterdam (1634-1636), Rembrandt uses broad fabrics, tons powerful and paints more spectacular scenes, as well as many portraits.
  • Towards the end of the Years 1630, it carries out many landscapes, as well as the engravings inspired by the topics of the nature, which is often seen in an aggressive way (trees torn off by the storms, clouds menaçantes…)
  • Starting from 1640, its work gains in sobriety and reflects the family tragedies from which he suffers. The exubérance is replaced by an interiorization of the feelings which torment it. The biblical scenes are rather inspired by New Testament that Old Testament, which was the case in its preceding works. The size of the fabrics also decreases, except notable for the Night round . The dark forces of nature leave room to peaceful rural Dutch scenes.
  • In the Years 1650, the style of Rembrandt changes again. He recovers to paint large fabrics and uses richer colors, the blows of brushes regain in force. It is imagined that it takes distance compared to its preceding work and that it also moves away from the mode of the moment, which supports the detail and the smoothness of realization. He continues to take as a starting point biblical topics, but in a style plus intimist, preferring the solitary characters with the scenes of group.
  • At the end of its life, it carries out many self-portraits, on which one sees his face impresses suffering and marked by the tests that it crossed.

Outstanding works

  • 1626 the part of music (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam)
  • 1629 Artist in his workshop (The Museum off Fine Arts, Boston)
  • 1630 the resurrection of Lazare (Los Angeles County Museum off Art, Los Angeles)
  • 1630 - 1635 a Turk (The National Gallery off Art, Washington, cd.)
  • 1631 Portrait off Nicolaes Ruts (Frick Collection, New York)
  • 1631 Christ in Cross (Collegial Vincent Saint, the Farmhouse of Resident of Agen, France)
  • 1632 '' the lesson of anatomy of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp '' (Mauritshuis, $the Hague)
  • 1632 Portrait of noble Eastern a (The Metropolitan Museum off Art, New York)
  • 1633 Saskai (portrait of its wife realized for their engagement)
  • 1635 Belshazzar' S Feast (National Gallery, London)
  • 1635 Enfant insolate (drawing)
  • 1636 the Blindness of Samson
  • 1636 Danaé (Musée hermitage, St Petersbourg)
  • 1642 '' the Company of known militia of Frans Banning Cocq '' under the name of Night round (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam)
  • 1650 '' the Philosopher '' (The National Gallery off Art, Washington, cd.)
  • 1650 The Mill (The National Gallery off Art, Washington, cd.)
  • 1651 has Girl with has Broom (The National Gallery off Art, Washington, cd.)
  • 1653 the sacrifice of Isaac (State Hermitage Museum, St Petersbourg)
  • 1653 Aristote contemplating the bust of Homère (Metropolitan Museum off Art, New York)
  • 1654 Bethsabée with the bath (Louvre, Paris) (Hendrickje was undoubtedly the model for this table)
  • 1655 Titus (Musée Boymans-van Beuningen)
  • 1658 Autoportrait (Frick Collection, New York)
  • 1659 Autoportrait (Metropolitan Museum off Art, New York)
  • 1660 Autoportrait (Metropolitan Museum off Art, New York)
  • 1661 Holy Jacques Major the
  • 1662 the syndic of the guild of the clothiers ( De Staalmeesters , Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam)
  • 1664 Lucrèce (The National Gallery off Art, Washington, cd.)
  • 1664 been engaged Jewish the (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam)
  • 1666 Lucrèce (The Mineapolis Institute off Arts, Mineapolis)
  • 1668 Man to the magnifying glass (Metropolitan Museum off Art, New York)
  • 1669 the return of the prodigal son (State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg)

  • Saint Jean Major the was allocated, in January 2007 in New York, for 25,8 million $.

Rembrandt and the drawing

Nearly 300 sheets are currently allotted to the painter (against more than 1300 in the Fifties).

They are primarily exercises of style, the majority not having a direct relationship with an existing table.

The richest collections are preserved at London, Amsterdam, Berlin and with the Musée of Louvre.

The painter used many techniques of which the Sanguine, ink, black stone. The topics of it are various but different from those of its tables: few portraits and much landscapes.

Rembrandt and the etching

The painter remains one of large the aquafortist 17th century and left nearly 290 boards which for the majority do not correspond to the originals because Rembrandt liked to work them over again. He probably learned the technique near Jan Lievens which probably divided its workshop with Leyde.

He specialized in the technique of the Eau-forte, using a copper plate covered with a varnish, which makes it possible to work on the latter with the same gesture as the draftsman. Acid tackled then the zones discovered by the varnish (the bite ), forming a relief in hollow which could retain ink. Rembrandt used several complementary techniques: the double bite where it took again the plate by recovering it second once of a varnish tranparent, the use complementary to a graver to accentuate certain features, or of a " mordan" directly on the plate in order to obtain effects of fog. It also left irregularities of inking allowing the constitution of more or less opaque veils.

Between 1650 and 1655, Rembrandt made some rare boards directly in Taille-douce.

Some tables

the Night round

Rembrandt painted the Company of Frans Banning Cocq and Willem van Ruytenburch , between 1640 and 1642. When the fabric was found at the 18th century, it was so dark and damaged that one would have believed in a night scene, it was thus called the Night round . By cleaning it, one realized that it was acted in fact of a group of Mousquetaire S leaving the shade of a court and advancing in light of day.

The table was ordered to decorate the new hall of the Kloveniersdoelen , the musketeers of the civil militia. Rembrandt moved away from conventions of the kind, where the characters were generally aligned in static installations. He chooses to show the militia whereas it prepares to leave on mission. One which, is it does not know besides of a simple patrol or a particular event? At all events, this artistic approach opposed the silent partners, and certain members of the militia were aggravated to see itself relegated to the background, almost invisible. With 1600 guilders, the payment was a record in the work of Rembrandt, in a company in which a workman gained 200 guilders per year .

So that it can find its place on the wall, of the parts of the fabric were cut out. Its current dimensions (437 X 363 cm) are still impressive, it occupies a whole side of one of the more dedicated big rooms of the Rijksmuseum, of which it is regarded as major work.

the Syndic of the clothiers

This fabric represents six characters in black suit, who wear hats and collar in flax, and which audits the accounts of the corporation of the clothiers. Work of order, it symbolizes the success of the middle-class as well as the power of Amsterdam. It illustrates well the talent of Rembrandt for the provision of his characters. Its execution is sober and effective.

Expertises

The distinction between the original work of the painter and that done by his workshop is difficult and attributions were variable in time.

In 1836 is published the first census of its painted work, made by John Smith, who counts nearly 600 tables. Nearly 400 additional paintings are allotted to him thereafter. Abraham Bredius brings back this number to 600 in a catalog published in 1935.

In 1968, Rembrandt Research Project (RRP) was initialized under the aegis of the Organization Dutchwoman for the advance of the scientific research ( Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek ). Historians of art and experts of several disciplines joined to validate the authenticity of the work allotted to Rembrandt and to draw up a complete listing of its paintings. Certain works were withdrawn from the list after expertise, of which the Cavalier Polish , preserved by the Frick Collection of New York. Majority of the experts, among whom Dr. Josua Bruyn of the RRP, now allots this table to the one of the most talented pupils of Rembrandt, Willem Drost. In 2003, the committee continues its work of investigation. The stakes are of size: Rembrandt can be currently sold more than 28 million American dollars. The expertise of the man to the gold helmet, exposed to Gemäldegalerie of Berlin, arrived also at the conclusion that its " attribution with Rembrandt is now practically exclue".

Collections

  • With the Netherlands, the most important collection of Rembrandt is with the Rijksmuseum, including the Night round and the Jewish Fiancée .
  • Beaucoup of its self-portraits is preserved in the Mauritshuis of $the Hague.
  • the museum of the House of Rembrandt to Amsterdam contains especially his engravings.
  • principal the other collections are with Berlin, New York, Saint-Pétersbourg, Washington D.C, with the Louvre and the National Gallery of London.

Recent exposure

  • Rembrandt - Caravaggio , Van Gogh Museum of Amsterdam, from February 28th, 2006 to June 18th, 2006
  • Rembrandt: The light of the shade , National library of France, from October 11th, 2006 to January 7th, 2007
  • Dutch Portraits at the century of Rembrandt and Frans Halls , Museum Mauritshuis Korte Vijverberg 8 - $the Hague, from October 13rd, 2007 to January 13rd, 2007.

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