Religious cosmology

Cosmology, calendar and relationship to sciences

In the Antiquity, with the the Middle Ages, the Rebirth and still during the Lights, the religious cosmology was not distinguished from the scientific cosmology. The main objectives continued by the study of the sky related to the calculation of the Temps. The Astronomie thus had as an application practices the establishment of the Calendrier S, as well as the manufacture of the sundials, of the Gnomon S, and of the Horloge S. Another concern which appears as of antiquity is the determination of the Date S of the religious holidays.

An illustration is given by it nowadays, in the Christianisme, with the church Saint-Sulpice with Paris, where one finds, in the left Transept, a astronomical Gnomon , conceived way such as the Lumière of the Sun lights the furnace bridge at the time of the festival of Easter. The calculation of the Date of Easter in relation to the Astronomie is the science object called the Comput, founded by Saint Bède Worthy the at the 8th century and enriched at the end of the 10th century by the Birtferth monk and Gerbert d' Aurillac (pope Sylvestre II) starting from the Islamic Sciences and technology (Al-Khwarizmi). In Christianity, the rules of the Comput are used for the establishment of the Calendrier including the religious holidays (mainly the date of Easter). The Agenda S are established in co-operation with the religious authorities (National center of pastoral liturgical). The Institute of celestial mechanics and calculation of éphémérides (IMCCE) thus calculates the Date of Easter according to the rules of the ecclesiastical Comput . The Date of Easter, in the Catholicism, is that definite at the time of the Concile of Nicée in 325.

It is only later, as from the 17th century and 18th century, with Kepler, Tycho Brahé, Galileo, and Newton, that the Astronomie made it possible to make discoveries in the fundamental Science S (the universal gravitation) which had applications in other fields that the calculation of the Temps and the Calendrier: the Mécanique opened the way with the Industrial revolution. Astronomy, then cosmology, became autonomous sciences, independent of the religious authorities, as from the 18th century. Enriched by sciences Physical S and the Chemistry (Mechanical quantum), the Astronomie gave rise to the end of the 19th century to the Astrophysique.

History related to Islamic civilization

The Islamic Civilization was interested of very close with cosmology and the Astronomie. The objective was simple, it acted to determine:

hours of Prayer (five by Day),
direction of Mecque, towards which the Fidèle S must be directed at the time of the Prière.

As of the 8th century, i.e. approximately one century after the arrival of the Prophet, the Abbasid dynasty founded a intellectual center with Baghdad. One took again the heritage of the Greek , in particular Ptolémée, and Aristote.

Ptolémée was large a Géographe 2nd century. In addition, its cosmological system (geocentric) provided a satisfactory explanation, for the social life of this time, of the configuration of the cosmos.

The Arabs manufactured abacus S, geographical maps, allowing to determine the elements necessary to the Prière.

Large Esprit S took part in this company, which required talents in all the fields: Algebra, Astronomy, Philosophy, Geography…

One can quote a whole of scientists to which the Christian Occident must much:

Al-Khwarizmi,
Al-Kindi,
Al-Farabi,
Avicenne,
Averroès (Ibn Rushd),

to quote only some of them.

This period of strong expansion of the thought resulting from Islam is often known under the expression of “golden age of Islamic civilization”, or, more simply, traditional period.

History related to the Christian Occident

Cosmology in the system of thought of the Early middle ages

In the beginning, the Astronomie merged with astrology. This last term, employed in Islamic civilization, did not have the pejorative direction that we allot to him sometimes today ( logos means speech, science in Greek). In addition, one did not distinguish the scientific and religious aspects from cosmology.

The Astronomie was one of the four disciplines of quadrivium, with the Algèbre, the Géométrie, and the Musique. The quadrivium and the trivium formed the Seven liberal arts.

It was Saint Bède Worthy the, Moine English, one of the largest well-read men of its time, which, to the 8th century, gave its noble letters to the measurement of the Temps which, one saw it, was related to cosmology. Saint Bède Worthy the was the true inventor of the science of the Comput. He was proclaimed Doctors of the Church at the end of the 19th century.

Towards the Year thousand, the studies of the Comput showed, under the impulse of another English monk, Birthfert, which included/understood the complexity of this science: for him, the Comput called upon four disciplines of the Liberal arts: two of the trivium (Dialectical and Grammar, to check) and two of the quadrivium (Astronomy and Algebra).

Gerbert d' Aurillac was also large a Astronome, doubled exceptional talents, for the time, in mathematics (one spoke about Algèbre and Géométrie) and in Philosophie. It started again the studies of the Dialectique and quadrivium at the school cathedral of Rheims, thus diffusing the Connaissance in all the Occident. Gerbert was the first introducer of the Philosophie of Aristote in Occident. It became Pape under the name of Sylvestre II.

Integration of the geocentric representation in Occident

Into the 12th century, the Occident integrated the Greek Philosophie and sciences , via the exchanges with Islamic civilization. The system of Représentation of the world of Aristote became gradually an absolute reference in the schools and Université S of the Christian Occident, as in Islamic civilization.

It represented the world centered on the ground, with a sublunary world and a supra-lunar world. The principal translations of works of Aristote took place at the 12th century.

psalm 93 (92)

Everyone thus represented the geocentric universe like , according to the theories of Aristote and Ptolémée.

Some passages of the Bible were written in this direction, like this line of the Psaume 93 (92) (God king of the Universe):

“You fixed the motionless and firm Earth. ”

Passage du comput Julien with the Gregorian comput

One knew since Antiquity (Jules César) that astronomical corrections were necessary on the relationship between the Temps of rotation of the ground on itself (Journée), and duration of the cycle Solaire (Année), that is to say 365,24 instead of 365,25.

As of 1345, Clément VI called at his court with Avignon the large astronomer Jean de Murs and a report/ratio ordered to him on the reform of the Calendrier.

The cardinal Pierre d' Ailly recalled to the Concile Constancy (1415) the golden age where the dignitaries of the primitive Church “were worried more calculation of the Jour S and moments that account of the sums of money and currencies”.

Two Concile S examined the reform project: the Council of Basle (1431 - 1449) and the Ve council of Lateran (1512 - 1517), but he trailed in length.

When Gregoire XIII became Pape in 1572, it put the reform project in its priorities. The reform was decided in February 1582.

One thus passed from the Comput Julien to the Gregorian Comput, which involved a shift of Calendrier, whose Historien S must hold account (10 days removed).

Appearance of the heliocentric theory

Copernic (Re) discovered the Héliocentrisme at the 16th century (1543). The theory of the Héliocentrisme claimed that the Sun was fixed in the center of the Univers.

Starting from 1609, the scientist Florentin Galileo used the Telescope which it had improved to study the movement of the Planet S, the star S, the sunspots. The discoveries of Copernic were then confirmed by Galileo.

A long letter of Galileo in Catherine of Lorraine in April 1615 indicates the passages of the Bible which posed, for Galileo, of the problems of interpretation compared to cosmology. In February 1616, Galileo was worried by Dominican. March 5th 1616, the Inquisition published a decree defining the Héliocentrisme like false and contrary doctrines in the Écriture, and put all the writings on the heliocentrism (of which those of Copernic) to the index.

Galileo published in 1632 the dialog out of the two great systems of the world, works in which he ridiculed a partisan of the geocentric representation . In spite of the support of some Jesuit S, Galileo was condemned in 1633 by the Inquisition, for a reason which, according to certain historians, would not have been entirely related to the Héliocentrisme (this point is discussed). One opposed to Galileo the passage Bible where Josué stops the race of the Sun (Js, 10,12-13). Urbain VIII, which was a friend of Galileo, immediately commuted the sorrow to house arrest.

According to Pietro Redondi, the true reasons were other than the Héliocentrisme: Galileo, by supporting the theory of the Atomism, would have violated the dogma of the Transsubstantiation at the time of the Eucharistie (this is discussed, to see external bond below).

Liftings of index, editions of works of Galileo

In 1741, in front of the optical proof of the orbitation of the Earth, the pope Benoît XIV made give by the the Holy Office the imprimatur to the first edition of complete works of Galileo. This gesture constituted an implicit revision of the sentences of 1616 and 1633.

In 1757, the works favorable to the Héliocentrisme were again authorized, by a decree of the Congrégation of the Index, which withdrew these works of the catalogs prohibited books. Napoleon made transfer certain files from the the Vatican in Paris. The file of Galileo carefully was inventoried and numbered, and the bilingual translation of all the parts committed. At the end of the reign of Napoleon, the file returned to the Vatican.

In 1823, Pie VII made confirm measurements of lifting of index, and the Olivieri father, police chief of the Holy Office, wrote a relationship favorable with concession of imprimatur for all the works presenting the Astronomie copernician like a checked thesis.

Despite everything these corrections, the image of the Catholic church was seriously affected, so that the “Galileo business” was undoubtedly for much in the rejection of the Métaphysique by the atheistic philosophies at the 19th century.

Work of interpretation

At the 19th century, the Protestants engaged of work of Exégèse. They worked on the Old Testament.

In 1893, the Pape Leon XIII promulgated the Encyclique Providentissimus deus on the biblical studies.

In 1942, Agostino Gemelli recognized that the Galileo business was a serious error, which blamed neither the Infaillibilité of the pope nor the authority of the Église.

In 1943, the Pape Pie XII promulgated the encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu , which gave to the Exégèse its standard of freedom by distinguishing the various literary kinds in the Writing.

The same pope Pie XII did not oppose the theory a Big bang (still discussed by the scientists).

On the controversy born of the business Galileo, to see:

work of Francesco Beretta, CNRS Lyon, undoubtedly one of the best specialists in the question today,
the articles Galileo, Relation between science and faith, equivalence of the assumptions, Urbain VIII and the thesis (discussed) of Pietro Redondi about the reasons of the lawsuit of Galileo (dogma of the Transsubstantiation),
external bonds below,
the bibliography.

As example, the Psaume 93 (92) (God of majesty), which contains a cosmological passage, is now written in the following way:

Bible of Jerusalem:

“Yes, the world is stable, not will not stumble. Your throne is established right from the start, since always, you are. ”

Oecumenical translation of the Bible:

“Yes, the world remains firm, inébranlable. Since then, your throne is firm; since always you are. ”

These draftings seem compatible with the current Cosmologie S scientists (see below).

Homages to Galileo

The modern Pape S did not cease paying homage to Galileo. The Concile the Vatican II recognized the undue character of certain interventions of the Église in the field of science. It echoed the thought of Galileo on the relationship between science and religion.

In 1979 and 1981, the pope Jean-Paul II charged a commission with re-examining the historical conditions under which took place the judgment of Galileo. The Église considers that it is not necessary to speak about rehabilitation, since the institution which condemned it does not exist any more, and that the liftings of index had place for a long time (1741, 1757). The principle of the index itself was removed since the Vatican II.

In 1983, for the 350e birthday of the lawsuit of Galileo, the Poupard cardinal published a book (see bibliography).

The “pontifical commission of studies of the controversy ptolemeo-copernician at the XVIe-XVIIe centuries” included/understood four work groups:

exegetic section (Martini cardinal)
cultural section, cardinal Paul Poupard,
science section and epistemological, professor Carlos Chagas and R.P. George Coyne,
historical and legal questions, Mgr Michele Maccarone.

In its report with the Pope Jean-Paul II of October 31st 1992, the cardinal Poupard indicated:

“This work does not fit in a lawsuit of rehabilitation, sometimes as one could believe it, nor in a legal framework who is out of their competence. It is about a clarification operated by scientists, anxious to include/understand and help to include/understand: to locate Galileo, initially compared to his predecessors, the canon Copernic, on the one hand, and compared to its contemporaries, the professors of the Roman College, on the other hand; then in the scientific culture, philosophical and theological of its time, finally during the centuries, of the time of the Lights in the scientific circles today. ”

This same October 31st 1992, the Pape Jean-Paul II decided in favor of Galileo at the time of his speech to the participants in the plenary session of the pontifical Académie of sciences.
A conference took place with the ENSTA with the cardinal Poupard of December 12th 2001 at March 27th 2002.
A second book of the cardinal Poupard on the business Galileo is appeared in October 2005.

Cosmology and social representation during the ages

The Représentation S of the world constantly evolved/moved in the Histoire.

One can note this quotation of Montesquieu at the 18th century:

“Today we receive three different or contrary educations: those of our fathers, those of our Masters, that of the world. What one says to us in the last shift all the ideas of the first. ”

It occurs periods thus, in the Histoire, where the representations of the world change radically. That lived Montesquieu and its contemporaries of the Age of Enlightenment was called the Révolution copernician. Starting from scientific discoveries on the Universes, operated by the observation and the stepping by the mathematical methods (Copernic, Galileo), one deduced from them the laws from dynamics (Newton), which had applications in all the fields of the practical life to 18th and 19th century. This news Représentation of the Univers thus had consequences on the social representations.

Before the Age of Enlightenment, the collective representations of the world had evolved/moved already much.

With the the Middle Ages, until worms the 14th century, one thus represented the ground like a flat disc.

This representation appeared however naive, because one observed in Egypt a well, at the bottom of which the light arrived only at certain days of the year. Some deduced from it that the ground was round, and they could even calculate of it the diameter with a certain precision. At the 15th century, the ground thus was generally regarded as round. That authorized the explorers, like Christophe Colomb, to go so far as to leave towards the west by the ocean to reach the Asia. Thus it " découvrit" the America, which in fact was known by the Viking S already since the An thousand approximately.

Current religious representation

Work of Interpretation and Hermeneutics of 19th and 20th centuries insisted on the dangers of a literal interpretation of the texts. The interpretation of the texts must initially be symbolic system.

Work of interpretation formulated certain passages differently. For example, the Psalm 93 (92) in Oecumenical translation of the Bible: “Yes, the world remains firm, inébranlable.

These draftings seem compatible with the current Cosmologie S scientists, which, according to the radioastronomic observation aids and current calculations Astrophysique S, represent the Univers like a whole of Galaxie S (Galaxy cluster, supercluster of galaxies), of which the Milky Way.

The Solar system turns around the center of the Milky Way, to two thirds of the ray of this one.

Religious cosmology and social sciences

Interpretation and hermeneutics

It was seen that the religious cosmology raises questions of Interprétation biblical texts .

Even if the cosmological passages of the Bible are very few, they have implications on the Représentation S, which engage all the social body, and even perhaps on some Dogme S exchanges.

The errors made about Galileo seem, at first sight, the fact of Interprétation S too literal of the Bible.

It was thus necessary to determine the criteria of Interprétation (Herméneutique), and of return to the sources of the old texts (Exégèse).

The biblical studies were the object Encyclique S:

Providentissimus deus , of Leon XIII (1893),
Divino afflante Spiritu of Pie XII (1943).

Philosophy

The religious cosmology has many implications in Philosophie, which the scientists admit not being able to only answer:

Which final direction to give to the human actions (Téléologie, ethical),
Which direction to give to the concept of Substance (Métaphysique),
How to widen the Logique with other modes of Raisonnement that the Déduction (Phénomène S which are connected by relations of Cause for purpose with the deductive direction): for example the induction (Logical).

Certain assumptions (cf Pietro Redondi above) on Galileo show that the dogma of the Transsubstantiation was concerned in the debates.

George V. Coyne, director of the astronomical observatory of the the Vatican, indicates the conditions under which one can establish a dialog between Philosophie, Théologie, and Cosmologie.

Anthropology

Behind a religious cosmology, can hide a new manner of approaching the report/ratio of the man to nature, and its vision of the life sciences. All the phenomena being dependant (holism), one comes from there to redefine a news Anthropologie.

Archeology of the knowledge and sociology

Religious cosmology, sight under the angle of archeology of the social sciences and the knowledge, corresponds to certain aspects of the concept of design of the world.

The philosopher Michel Foucault calls the designs of the world of the épistémè S. According to him, we enter new a épistémè that it calls the Hypermodernité.

Michel Foucault develops these ideas in the words and the things (1966), and in the Archeology of the knowledge (1969).

Recognition of the errors of certain theologists of the 17th century on Galileo

October 31st 1992, the Pape Jean-Paul II pays once again homage to Galileo at the time of his Speech to the participants in the plenary session of the pontifical Académie of sciences.

Jean-Paul II recognized clearly on October 31st, 1992 the errors of some Théologien S of the 17th century in the business:

Thus new science, with its methods and the freedom of research which it supposes, obliged the theologists to wonder about their own criteria of interpretation of the Writing. The majority did not know to do it.

Paradoxically, Galileo, sincere believer, was shown more perspicacious on this point than its adversaries theologists. " If the writing cannot wander, he in Benedetto Castelli writes, some of its interpreters and commentators can it, and in several ways ". One knows also his letter with Christine of Lorraine (1615) which is like a small treaty of biblical Herméneutique .

Quotations

the Protestants like better to be in dissension with the Sun that in agreement with the pope , Johannes Kepler.
Since Creation, it never acted of another thing but of the end of the world , Paul Claudel.

See too

Cosmogonies

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