Rebirth of XIIe century

Mark in Occident the apotheosis of the Renaissance ottono-clunisienne of the S and were the golden age of the Moyen-âge. The Occident controls the Mediterranean and has access to knowledge of the worlds Moslem and Persan. The circulation of knowledge is done in an enormous geographical space. That accentuates the economic social transformations, policies and intellectual revitalization secondaries with the Renaissance ottono-clunisienne and opens the way with the artistic and literary movements of the Pre-Rebirth in Italy of the Trecento and the scientific developments of the {{S|XVII|E}}.

The redécouverte of work of Aristote carried out Thomas d' Aquin and other thinkers to develop the philosophy of the Scolastique. In Architecture, many Gothic cathedrals was built or supplemented for this period.

Context

Rebirth ottono-clunisienne

Transitory the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century posed the bases of a technological and cultural push. The introduction of monastic networks on the ways of pilgrimages will allow the exchange of knowledge through all Europe. The 10th century is favorable to the introduction of structured States allowing the resumption of the exchanges. The Spanish Operating states and mainly the Comté of Barcelona profiting from frontier contacts with the Muslim world will improve their agricultural techniques and to have access to the writings of Antiquity. These technological advances travelling on the ways of Saint-Jacob will profit in whole Europe. Thus appear the use of the plow instead of the swing-plow, the horses in the place of oxen, and the system of rotation triennial and either biennial. The outputs reach 4 per 1 in Burgundy at the 12th century compared with 2 to 3 per 1 at the time Carolingian.

These technical improvements are potentiated by one period of climate warming, of approximately. The Blé is cultivated until in Scandinavia, and the Vigne in the north of the England, even if the most important expansion of the vineyards occurs for the Small Period of the Ice Age of the 14th century. This protection against the Famine makes it possible the European population to grow, in spite of the famine of 1315 which kills 1,5 million people. It is considered that between 950 and 1300, the European population doubled and triplet in certain areas. The increase in the population involves immense Défrichement S and drainings of marshes which make it possible to extend the surface cultivateds. That makes it possible to increase the agricultural production further and thus to nourish more mouths.

At the 11th century, the populations of the north of the the Alps colonize new grounds, of which some were turned over at the wild state after the end of the Roman Empire. In what was called “great cleanings”, of vast forests of Europe were made pleasant. At the same time, the colonies exceeded the traditional borders of the frank Empire to the new borders of Europe of the East, beyond the Elba, tripling the size of the Germanie consequently occasion. The Crusaders founded colonies with the Raising, the Spanish Reconquête repopulated the space taken again with the Moors, and the Normands colonized the south of the Italy; all the populations thus thus increased.

The creation of the Holy roman Empire and the seizure of Ottoniens on Italy of North will involve the possibility of commercial exchanges between the Holy roman Empire and the Mediterranean. Benefitting from their central geographical position in these exchanges, from the cities like Genoa, Amalfi or Pisa will obtain commercial and military fleets powerful and will take the control of the Mediterranean, making possible the crusades.

See also: Contenu=Pour more details, to see the article [[rebirth ottono-clunisienne]].

XII {{E}} and 13th centuries: golden age of the medieval Occident

Crusades

At the 12th century, this tendency is confirmed: after the taken of Jerusalem in 1099, the Middle East is now controlled by Christendom. The military Orders created to control these new territories will be organized in gigantic transnational networks, accelerating the exchanges of informations with the Muslim world. For example, the Commanderie S templières are established out of Holy Land, in all the Christian countries of the Iberian peninsula (where the templiers take part in the reconquista) in Eastern Europe at the borders of the pagan world (one will count there to 14 establishments and two fortresses templières).

Cistercians

If the Ordre of Cluny were one of the engines of the rebirth ottono-clunisienne, while growing rich it loses its rigor and its credibility. The Order cistercian, which is founded in 1098 with the Abbaye of Cîteaux by Robert de Molesme will be an important actor of the diffusion of knowledge and culture in Europe as from the 12th century. With the support of papacy, kings and bishops, the influence of Bernard de Clairvaux in the expansion of the order is decisive. With his death in 1153, one counts three hundred and fifty monasteries. This order is close to the templiers which are founded in 1118 on the model of Cîteaux with the support of Cisterciens for the Concile of Troyes and has accesses to knowledge resulting from the cultural exchanges to the borders of Christendom. However, the monks cistercians propose manual work where Clunisiens encouraged especially the spirit. They thus will index and improve the agricultural techniques and will apply scientific progresses to their own infrastructures. They make inter alia progressing the techniques of irrigation and énergétiquement build hydraulic mills with turbine much more effective than the paddle mills. The presence within the monasteries of many brothers Convers living with their family in the neighbouring villages makes it possible to diffuse the novel methods in the rural population and to accelerate the population growth. In addition, Cisterciens will create their own architectural style being characterized by remarkable buildings by the purity of their lines, the economy of materials and the simplicity of the overall plan. The appearance of broken arches precedes the Gothic and the purity of line gives extraordinary acoustics to their vaults.

Acceleration of the commercial exchanges

The increase in population and the improvement of the agricultural techniques allow an acceleration of the production and release from the richnesses and labor for other spots. The cities grow, as well as the number of tradesmen and craftsmen. It is easier to trade at that time by sea route than by the roads. The maritime Républiques Italian grow rich thanks to their densified sales networks after the crusades and their maritime power is such as they can benefit from the fights of influence between the Holy roman Empire and papacy, to obtain their autonomy. Same manner, the cities of the north of the Holy roman Empire create sales networks which cover the Baltic and the North Sea as of 1150 and gather around the Hanseatic League starting from 1241, including Lübeck, Amsterdam, Cologne, Bremen, Hanover and Berlin. The Hanseatic cities out of the Holy roman Empire Romain are Bruges and the Polish city of Gdańsk. With Bergen and Novgorod, the league has of workshops and intermediaries. For this period, the German ones colonize is Europe beyond their empire, in Prussia and Silesia. Just like the Italian republics, the power of this league makes it possible these towns of obtain an quasi-autonomy. The exchanges are done on an enormous zone geography and that contributes to accelerate cultural progress.

At the end of the 13th century, a Venetian explorer called Marco Polo becomes one of the first Europeans to travel along the Silk route until in China. The conscience of the remote East increase with the reading of its voyages in It Milione . It is followed by many Christian missionaries towards the East, like William de Rubruck, Giovanni da Pian del Carpini, André de Longjumeau, Odoric de Pordenone, Giovanni de Marignolli, Giovanni di Monte Corvino, and other travellers like Niccolo Da Conti.

Technology

principal Article: medieval Technology

During the S in Europe was held a radical change in the quantity of new inventions, innovations by the fact of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth. In less than one century, there were more inventions developed and applied successfully that in the previous millenia of the history of the Man to all the sphere. This period saw technological projections major, including the adoption or the invention of the Impression, the Gunpowder, the Astrolabe, the Lunettes, better a Horloge, and well improved Navire S. These two last projections made possible the advent of the Âge of exploration.

Alfred Crosby off describes some of these technological revolutions in The Measure Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600 and other major historians of technology also noticed it.

the oldest written description of a Windmill with the Yorkshire, England, gone back to 1185.
the manufacture of the Papier began in Italy towards 1270.
the Weaving loom was brought in Europe (probably of the India) to the 13th century.
the helped navigation of the compass Magnétique reached Europe in the end of the 12th century.
the Lunettes were invented in Italy towards the end of the year 1280.
the Astrolabe returned to Europe by Islamic Spain.
Léonard of Pisa introduces the Arab numerals in Europe with its book Liber Abaci in 1202.
the oldest description of the West of a Gouvernail of direction assembled on the poop can be found engraved in a church gone back to worms 1180.

Schools, cathedrals and Universities

It is starting from the end of the 11th century that the urban schools are essential, in Angers, Chartres, Laon, Paris, Rheims, and that the monastic schools are erased, for several reasons:

urban growth
the movement of reform of the monasteries, which “center” on the role of place of prayer
the progressive disappearance of the institution of the oblats
contradiction between intellectual formation and monastic humility, defended by Saint Bernard
the effects of the Gregorian reform, which encourages the episcopal schools and the restoration of a common life for the canons, who gather into collegial

In 1179, the IIIe council of Lateran in 1179 codifies the evolutions which took place during the century: each church cathedral must have a school; the chapter must reserve a benefit for the écolâtre.

In Paris, the School of the Chapter having fallen in decline, of many rival schools had been established on the Holy-Genevieve hill, to escape episcopal control. Since 1208-1209, to resist the claims of the Chapter, the Masters group in an association which, in 1215, takes the name of Universitas magistrorum and scolarium . It is also a question of escaping the royal jurisdiction.

It is under these conditions that Innocent III provides the foundations of the University of Paris. Since 1200, the king Philippe Auguste and the pope had intended themselves to regard the students as clerks (Charter of Philippe Auguste). They thus escape the temporal power and receive the right to be organized under the high ranking authority of the Pope. The pontifical intervention is thus particularly clear for the Université of Paris, which receives its statutes of the Pope because it proves upon the departure being the headlight of theology.

In 1215, the Pope orders to the chancellor of Notre-Dame de Paris to confer the university degrees on those which were considered to be worthy by it by their Masters. The first official statute of the “Community of the Masters and pupils of Paris” is promulgated by Robert de Courson. It is to recognize the freedom of collation of the ranks without episcopal intervention. The university becomes an autonomous community, which is confirmed by Gregoire IX in 1231 (bubble Parens scientarum ). In the fight between the bishop of Paris and the University, the king of France in general supports the bishop, and the pope, the university.

One second university is created in Toulouse in 1229. There was a school tradition in Languedoc: in addition to Montpellier, considerable center dedicated to medicine and undoubtedly also with the right, there were monastic schools and some episcopal schools.

But this foundation is to be replaced especially in the context of the Albigensian crusade. On the one hand, it is imposed on Raymond VII of Toulouse by the pope (dealt of Paris and Meaux in 1229). The university is in addition in a certain way the continuation of the Dominican preaching of the beginning of the 13th century, in order to make move back the heresy not by the weapons, but by the explanation of the Christian faith.

The material taught are very different from those taught in Paris:

civil law, interdict in Paris in 1219 by the bubble Super speculam . Besides it has so much success in Toulouse and elsewhere than Innocent IV complains in 1254 qu ' it diverts theology;

Aristote and its works of cosmology, prohibited in Paris until 1255.

The first professors of theology named in Toulouse come from Paris, in the context of strike and dispersion of the University of Paris this year. In front of the hostility of the population, they leave, but the University survives thanks to the support of the pope Gregoire IX which octroît to him the same privileges as at the University of Paris (1233); for example, any Master regularly received in one of Faculties could teach everywhere else without another examination, students and Masters would depend only on ecclesiastical justice… The first college for poor students opens in 1243, before the Sorbonne (1257), and the colleges of Oxford (1262) and Cambridge (1284).

The reputation of the medical college of Montpellier is explained mainly by the geographical location of the city, which, at the edge of the Mediterranean, is in contact with the Eastern world and more still with Spain where the Arabs and the communities Jews preserved and improved the medical legacy of Antiquity. If Salerno profits from the same conditions, its prestige declines as that of Montpellier is affirmed.

This school, undoubtedly very old, enters the history only in 1137. In 1180, the freedom of medical teaching is established in the city. At this point in time continues the pontifical influence: the Conrad cardinal-legate promulgates into 1221 the first statutes of the medical college, which are supplemented in 1229 by the legate Guy de Sora. A chancellor directs the school, which concerns ecclesiastical justice. Until the 14th century, the bishop preserves a right to watch on the collation of the license and the doctorate. The students then receive some privileges without really taking part in the management and the organization of the University.

Teaching rests primarily on the book study of the traditional “authorities”, the Greeks Galien (2nd century apr. J. - C.) and Hippocrates (Ve-.). Their physiology is based on the theory of moods (blood, lymph, yellow bile and black bile) of which that derives from the temperaments. The study of the Hebrew doctors or Arab tradition is added to it, like Persian Avicenne (death at the beginning of the 11th century). The experimentation is rare: it is not expected that one dissection in two years of studies.

The school of right starts brilliantly. Its first known Master is Irnerius, Master of Bologna come to seek refuge. Faculty ensures teaching, about 1230, of the civil law and the canon law, but it is only into 1285 that the bishop obtains the authorization to deliver the license.

The Théologie is taught as of the middle of the 13th century in the convents beggars. It is not that in 1241 qu ' it is constituted in true faculty with the bishop as chancellor.

Science

principal Article: History of science to the Middle Ages

The philosophical and scientific lesson of the beginning of the Middle Ages was based on some rare copies and comments of old Greek texts surviving in Western Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire of the West. A broad part of Europe had then lost the contact with knowledge of the past.

This scenario changes after the Renaissance ottono-clunisienne. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily at the time of the Reconquest and the Croisades made it possible to Europeans to preserve copies of work of the Romans and former Greeks (who were previously lost) as well as work of the Islamic philosophers, of which in particular Averroès. The birth of the medieval universities started with a new infrastructure which was necessary for the scientific communities and materially helped for the translation and the propagation of these texts.

At the beginning of the 13th century, correct Latin translations of principal works of all the former crucial authors were reasonably available. As from this moment, the natural philosophy contained in these texts started to extend by scientists such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. The precursors of the modern scientific methods can be seen in the emphase of Grosseteste on mathematics like method of comprehension of nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon. According to Pierre Duhem, the Condamnation of 1277 led to the birth of modern science, because it forced the thinkers to avoid basing themselves too much on Aristote, and thus thinking more the world in new ways. First half of the 14th century saw being born the scientific work from large thinkers. Guillaume d' Ockham introduced the principle of Parcimonie: philosophy should be interested only on subjects on which it can provide a truth knowledge. The purpose of that is to lead to the decline of the debates without goals and displacement of the natural philosophy towards the science . The researchers like Jean Buridan and Nicolas Oresme started to question the received wisdom of the principles of the mechanics of Aristote. In particular, Buridan developed the theory of the Impetus which was a first stage towards the modern concept of Inertie.

In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end at the previous period of scientific and philosophical developments massive. Later, of new developments will lead to the scientific Révolution, which can be also included/understood like a resumption of this process of scientific change stopped by the beginning of the Black Death.

Scholastic

principal Article: Scholastic

A new method of training called scholastic was developed towards the end of the 12th century starting from the redécouverte of work of Aristote through the medieval Jews and Moslem philosophy (Maïmonide, Avicenne, and Averroès) and those which they influenced, of which most famous Albert Large the, Bonaventure and Abélard. It is about a method founded on the study and the comment of the fundamental and authorized religious and profane texts. It comprises three types of exercise: the lectio on the one hand, the quaestio and the disputatio on the other hand. It is on this aspect that the rationalist and modern criticism of the scholastic will concentrate. Its method is indeed intellectual, founded pure gamble exclusively on the comment of texts or the comment of comments, prohibiting any direct glance on reality.

It follows a deep philosophical reflection which calls into question certain bases of the Church what leads to a theological quarrel.

A first period (of the beginning of the 11th century at the end of the 12th century) is marked by the quarrel of the universals, opposing the realistic , carried out by Guillaume de Champeaux, with the nominalist , represented by Roscelin, and with the conceptualists (Pierre Abélard).

The universals are types, properties or relations and characterize what is invariable in time and space. The universals are thus opposed to the private individuals and are assimilable, in first approach, with concepts.

Thus the chevalinity, circularity,… are universals. Contrary, such horse, such circle are private individuals.

The schools are opposed on the question of knowing if the universals are pure designs of the Esprit, i.e. simple Concept S, or if they are Idée S, comparable to the Platonic design of the Ideas and have a clean Existence for this reason.

This opposition right through crosses the Histoire of philosophy. Plato, idealist, and Aristote, realistic, presented opposite theses. For Plato, the Ideas exist and are even only reality. For Aristote, the observation of nature (physis) and realities concrete precede.

If the Platonic thesis were dominant a long time, even exclusive, it was called into question by the canon of Compiegne Roscelin, which affirmed that the universals are above all the abstractions, which have existence only in the spirit of that which forms them and by means of the words or of the names which one indicates them; what gave its name to this thesis: the Nominalism.

A second period (of the 12th century at the end of the 13th century) sees the entry in force of works of Aristote, introduced by the philosophers Jewish and Arab, in particular Averroès, but then translated of the Latin Greek by Albert Large the and Guillaume de Moerbeke, secretary of Thomas d' Aquin.

Several sensitivities were expressed as of this time. It is noted for example that Robert Grossetête in Lincoln, and Roger Bacon in Oxford, more carried towards the Expérience that towards the pure speculation, had identified some errors made by Aristote in connection with the natural phenomena, which by no means prevented them from recognizing the importance of the philosophy of Aristote.

Those which practiced the method scholastic believe in the Empirisme and support the doctrines of the catholic Roman Church through the secular studies, the reasoning and logic. They oppose the Christian Mysticisme and the beliefs platonistes-augustiniennes in dualism (philosophy of the spirit) and the sight of the world like basically bad. The most famous practitioner of the scholastic is Thomas d' Aquin (later high with the row of Doctors of the Church), which carried out the displacement of the Platonisme and the Augustinisme towards Aristotélisme. Using the method scholastic, of Aquin developed a Philosophie of the spirit by writing that the Esprit was during the birth a tabula shaved (“white table”) to which is given the possibility of thinking and to recognize forms or ideas through a divine spark. Other famous scholastics are Roscelin, Abélard, and Pierre Lombard. One of the main questions for this period of time was the problem of the universe. Prominent not-scholastics of the same period are Duns Scots, Guillaume d' Ockham, Anselme de Canterbury, Pierre Damien, Bernard de Clairvaux, and the Victorines.

Saint Anselme (1033-1109)

Anselme de Canterbury (1033-1109): theologist and philosopher, he teaches with the abbey of the Nozzle-Hallouin close to Évreux, where he follows initially the lessons of Lanfranc. He is named archbishop of Canterbury in 1093.

He tries to include/understand the Christian faith in the light of the reason in Monologion, then Proslogion which contains the “ontological argument” of the existence of God. Lastly, in its Cur Deus Homo, he seeks to interpret the dogma of the incarnation rationally. The influence of Plato and Saint Augustin is rather sensitive in his work.

Saint Anselme fits in the current which wants to put the rational step at the service of the faith. It is not a rational theology with the direction where the reason must be enough to render comprehensible the divinity; it is not a question to include/understand to believe, but to include/understand by means of dialectical the allowed truths of faith: Creed C intellegam.

Saint Anselme grants to the Man an essential place in creation. In Cur Deus Homo, Anselme refuses the commonly allowed idea according to which the Man would have been created by God to replace the fallen angels after the revolt of Lucifer. Anselme affirms that, in any event, the human nature was created by God because it deserved it. The human being is thus not a creature of replacement, it was envisaged of any eternity by God who, while incarnating itself, gave another dimension to humanity.

To define the existence of God by the exercise of the reason and either only by studying the Revelation was a stake even more important. Anselme saint, being based on a dialectical step, affirms the existence of God by the ontological argument: “we have in us the idea of perfect God; however the existence is a condition first of the perfection. If thus God is perfect, God exists”.

The ontological argument is disputed by Gaunilon de Marmoutier, monk close to Turns: one can think of the gasoline of a being only if his existence beforehand were established.

Robert Grossetête (1175-1253)

In 1215, he becomes chancellor of the Université of Oxford, in 1230 he teaches with the studium franciscain of Oxford from which 20 years Roger Bacon will leave later. Impassioned of Greek of which he encouraged the study, he translates itself the Éthique in Nicomaque and works of the Pseudo-Denys Aréopagite, carries out several comments on the work of Aristote, and makes come to Oxford well-read men from several countries - including Greece - in their asking to bring with them all that to them possible as was treated grammar - what contributes to sit the reputation of this university. He confirms the rotundity of the Earth indicated by Aristote, but adds natural explanations indicating that the Planet S must be round too they.

Conscious that mathematics is the privileged tool of other sciences, it is interested mainly in the Géométrie ( Of lineis, angulis and figuris ) and in the Astronomie ( theorica planetarum , Of accessione and recessione husbands ). He develops the theory according to which everyone physical can be described by Géométrie. Being based on the treaties of optics of Ibn Al-Haytham, he studies the direct rays, the reflected rays, the deviated rays. It is interested in the formation of the Arc-en-ciel ( Of iride ) and works on the lens S and the Miroir S. It discovers thus that the lenses, not only has the property to be able to put fire, but also can be used more simply as Loupe. He studies the Réfraction light through a spherical container filled with water ( Of will natura locorum ). He is at the origin of a rule (imperfect) on the concept of refraction: " the angle of refraction is equal to half of the angle of incidence".

Concerning the Color S, in its work Of colors , it is one of the first to make a distinction between:

the white ( lux will clara or albedo ) and black ( lux will obscura or nigredo )
7 primary colors

To each color, it assigns another property: the luminosity, thus allowing to make the difference between a luminous blue and a dull blue.

It develops a design of the Infini and with the intuition that certain infinite are larger than others.

Following Ibn Al-Haytham, it defends the idea that science is built by the Expérience.

Roger Bacon (1214-1294)

Roger Bacon considers that only the Expérience is source of certainty in the scientific discipline. Bacon thus rejects the purely abstract Raisonnement S which are sterile for the advance of sciences. It creates the applied science by making Expérience the only source of scientific knowledge.

Albert the Large one (1193? - 1280)

The verification of the writings of Albert in 1899 counted a total of 38 volumes, showing its wide and literally encyclopedic knowledge of all kinds of subjects, including inter alia the Logique, the Théologie, the Botanique, the Géographie, the Astronomie, the Minéralogie, the Chimie, the Zoologie, the Physiologie and the Phrénologie, all these fields being only the result of logic and the observation. He was the author more read of his time. He lute and endorsed the totality of the work of Aristote, in a Latin translation accompanied by the notes of the Arab commentators, whom he interpreted and systematized in the light of the doctrines of the Church.

The knowledge which Albert of physical sciences had was considerable and, for the time, relatively precise. Its work in each field was excellent, and although one finds in his analysis error count characteristic of philosophy Scolastique, its long-term study of Aristote gave him a great faculty of systematization of its reflection and exposure of its conclusions, and the results of this study, such as they reached us, do not justify in any way the scorning nickname which is sometimes given to him of “monkey of Aristote”. Well rather they lead us to better appreciating the epithets of Large or latn '' doctor universalis '' that its contemporaries decreed to him. It should however be admitted that a broad part of its knowledge were badly comparable: thus Albert considered it that Plato and Speusippe was stoical S.

Albert was all at the same time a student and a professor in Alchimie and Chimie. He insulated the Arsenic in 1250, the first element with being insulated since Antiquity and the first whose discoverer is known for us. It was claimed that he was a magician, owing to the fact that he was on several occasions shown by some of his despisers of communier with the devil, to practice the art of the magic, and to be able to speak a démoniaque language. it was also one of the famous alchemists being managed to discover the Philosopher's stone.

Guillaume de Champeaux (1070-1121)

Guillaume de Champeaux , bishop of Châlons (out of Champagne) of 1113 with 1121 was a French philosopher and theologist. It took party for realism in the Querelle of the universals.

He taught at the school of the cathedral Our-lady, of which he was made canon in 1103.

Its only printed work is a fragment on Eucharistie (inserted by Mabillon in its edition of work of Bernard saint) as Moralia has brevi went and Of Origin Animae (in E. Martnes Thesaurus novus Anecdotorum , 1717, vol. 5). In the latter it supports that the children who die not baptized are obligatorily damnés, the pure heart being soiled by the coarseness of the body and it affirms that the will of God should not be questioned. It supports the theory of the creationnism (according to which a heart is especially created for each human being). Ravaisson-Mollien discovered a certain number of fragments of him, among which most important is De Essentia Dei and of Substantia Dei ; a Liber Sententiarum , composed of discussions on the ethics and the interpretation of the Bible was also allotted to him.

Pierre Abélard

Returned towards 1102 with Paris and become Master (name given to a teacher in the medieval world) where it breaks with the capitulary school of Notre-Dame, it is installed in the surroundings of Paris on the Montagne Holy-Genevieve where he founds a school of Rhétorique and Théologie opened by itself where he is established in 1108. In this school, it there teaches the Rhétorique and philosophy Scolastique, and propagates her ideas in the schools of Melun, Corbeil and Paris. He enjoys very quickly a great fame in the world of the intellectuals and passes quickly for one of the most important philosophers of his generation.

It is a brilliant Master who has a great success. This school was attended by more than 3.000 listeners of all the nations, and from which several famous men left.

It tardily begins its studies from Théologie, but its success is as important in the teaching of this matter as the Philosophie. Unfortunately for him, it is opposite with eminently important personalities like Saint Bernard and Saint Thierry, which regards it as an heretic within sight of his theological and doctrinary positions on the question of the trinity.

Pierre Abélard is a specialist in the language. At his place, the Dialectique is connected with the Logique. Before Descartes, it practices the methodical doubt: “While doubting, we put ourselves in research, and while seeking we find the truth”.

Abélard goes further. It stresses that one can give an account of the fundamental dogmas of Christianity by using the notions of pagan philosophy. In addition, professor of dialectical, it shows that the logic, inspired of Aristote, can be an instrument of universal use in all the branches of the knowledge, in particular in theology.

It seems that Abélard is the first with the Middle Ages to give to the word “theology” its modern direction of effort of rational and systematic exposure of the contents of the Writings and the truths of the faith. Abélard thought that thanks to the dialectical one one could, in a way obviously approximate, analogical, to present the revealed truths (as the dogma of the Trinity) so that it appeared at least that they were not in contradiction with the requirements of the reason. This prospect was contrary to that of the traditional monastic culture, that Saint Bernard carried then to his apogee and who expressed himself above all by the allegorical and mystical comment of the crowned text, prepared in the meditation, the prayer and humility.

In 1121, its treaty Theologia summi profit, written to explain the mystery of the Trinity using purely rational arguments, is condemned by the synod of Soissons. In 1141, after the council of Direction of 1140, nineteen of its positions of Introductio AD theologiam are declared heretics.

Saint Bernard, alerted by his friend Guillaume of Saint-Thierry, is particularly severe, while reproaching him for reducing the Christian mysteries to rational truths, for resorting to analogies, for subordinating the credibility of the truths of the faith to their logical demonstration, and for substituting personal innovations for the authority of the Writings.

However, these judgments are not those of the unanimous Church: each time, of the prelates of high ranking and high culture, like Pierre Worthy the, abbot of Cluny, defended it and accommodated after its judgments, which had besides only one effect limited on the diffusion of its ideas, its works and its method.

The primacy of dialectical means that the discussion, the “disputed question”, becomes from now on the fundamental school exercise that the masterly reading does not make any more but prepare. That modifies the same conditions of the professional work, the atmosphere of the schools and the reports/ratios of the students between them and with their Master.

The relative freedom which enjoyed the Parisian schools was the guarantee of intense intellectual exchanges, stimulated by the success of dialectical and the argument, instruments of a true progress of knowledge. The ransom of this atmosphere of permanent emulation and intellectual curiosity always in awakening is the frequency of the quarrels and the roughness of the jealousies between pupils of the same school or rival Masters who dispute the audiences of students.

Abélard was undoubtedly the largest defender of the Nominalisme to the Moyen-âge. It is even allowed to attack the ideas of the doctrines of the Réalisme taught by Guillaume de Champeaux and those of Roscelin , the Nominalisme. It succeeds in linking these two doctrines under a system of conceptualism.

With the Sic and Not (1123), collection of quotations extracted the Fathers of the Church, Abélard seeks to solve the oppositions on the questions presenting of contradictions. Abélard invents a science of the language which must study the direction of the words, the same word which can have several directions. It develops the Scolastique thus.

In theology, its doctrines are founded on dialectical impossibility to arrive at the knowledge of the world without repudiating the realism of the things. It introduces rationalism within theology. Dissolving the mystery, it causes the lightnings of Saint Bernard. Power , Wisdom and Bonté is for him the three terms of the Trinité (Father/Fils/Saint Spirit). The names are attributes of divine hypostasié.

Encyclopedias

In this 12th century when the Civilization S come into contact, Abélard is also a precursor of the intercultural dialog. He writes the Dialog between a philosopher, a Jew and a Christian (1142), which will remain unfinished. The encyclopedias and the Sums which multiply at the 12th century take part of the idea that the knowledge leads to God. The purpose of the meeting of human knowledge in a volume is to contemplate the work of the creator through knowledge collected since Antiquity. These encyclopedias tend to be released gradually from mystical and allegorical interpretations.

Hugues of Saint-Victor (? - 1141), schoolmaster of the abbey of the regular canons of Saint-Victor to Paris of 1115 to 1141, establishes in sacramentis a true encyclopedia of the theological knowledge through the study of the sacraments. He wanted to defend in his monastery humanistic education, while maintaining it maidservant of theology. He distinguishes fashionable philosophy and divine theology. Regarded by its contemporaries as the first theologist of his time, he is the author of an important exegetic work.

Didascalicon of Hugues of Saint-Victor is a treaty of methodology, pedagogy and hermeneutics. The subtitle of this treaty, From arte legendi, teaches us that it is also an art of reading, i.e. an art to teach. The first three books treat “profane writings”, i.e. of all the books which refer to the liberal arts or the social sciences. All sciences are indeed useful, to not only arrive at wisdom, but also to include/understand the “divine writings” whose the last three books treat.

The profane writings speak about the “work of creation” (opus creatonis), the divine writings of the “work of the redemption”.

Pierre Lombard (about 1100-1160) was a long time professor in the schools of Paris. It finishes bishop of Paris. Starting from a compilation of Fathers of the Church, it organizes groups of questions with discussion including/understanding approval and refutation, then the solution, which was the teaching of the Master (Book of the Sentences, 1152). This work divided into four books, gives a complete presentation, methodically ordered, mysteries of the faith. It is there the base of the method scholastic which will be essential in the university education. The theological designs of Pierre Lombard become that of the Church to the fourth council of Lateran.

The Writing is constantly quoted in the Sentences, but it became an authority called upon, explained and with accompanying notes in order to hold its role in the demonstrations and the theological argumentations of the Master.

The success of the work of Pierre Lombard devotes to some extent the distinction between the teaching of the Writing and that of the theology which had gradually continued and which will be one of the features characteristic of the method scholastic. The Masters of the university, at the 13th century, undoubtedly continue to read and comment on the Writing. But in their theological teaching itself, they are the Sentences of Pierre Lombard whom they explain and comment on.

At the 13th century, much of encyclopedias are produced in mobility beggar, like Albert the Large one in his Of animalibus (1270): the work includes/understands 26 pounds, 19 which follow the zoology of Aristote, the seven others being supported on Pline the Old one. It describes the animals according to their medium of life, and brings new knowledge on the animals of the Scandinavian regions, like the narval, whose horn passed to be a horn of unicorn.

End of the Golden age

The scholastic has allowed to release the thought and accelerated the scientific developments, but it also caused a reflection on certain bases of the Église. It results from it from the university quarrels and ecclesiastics who end so that certain churches seek to be detached from Rome. In the reflection rises on the primacy from the spiritual power on the temporal power: Europe is a theocracy centralized in Rome, a whole of theocracies or a whole of States controlled by monarchs by divine right? The centrifugal forces are thus with work, but Rome can maintain its influence as long as it controls vast Holy Land territories (with the political clout and soldier which confer to him the military orders).

The May 28th 1291, the crusaders lose the town of Midsummer's Day d' Acre at the conclusion of a bloody battle. The Christians are then obliged to leave the Holy Land: the religious orders such as the Templiers and the Hospitaliers do not escape this exodus.

However, once in Occident, the question of the utility about the Temple arises because it had been created, at the origin, to defend the pilgrims going to Jerusalem on the tomb of Christ. However, it is subjected only to the papal authority and Boniface VIII declares in 1300, by the bubble Unam Sanctam , the superiority of the spiritual power on the temporal power, and by this skew the superiority of the pope on the kings, the latter being responsible in front of the chief for the Église: It tries to found a Théocratie. The counterpart of Philippe the Beautiful one is striking down: It sends Guillaume Nogaret to notify to the pontiff his quotation to appear before a council having to deposit it. This event is called " Attack of Anagni ". But Boniface VIII dies one month later. The new pope Clement V, of French origin, is elected with the approval of Philippe the Beautiful one and settles with Avignon. Philippe the Beautiful one has the freehands to destroy the Ordre of the Temple which has the appearance of an armed wing of the Church. The October 13rd 1307, Templiers were stopped. Many is subjected to torture to obtain consents corresponding to the counts of indictment: disavowal of the Holy-Cross, disavowal of the Christ, sodomy and worship of an idol (called the Baphomet. Thus, at the 14th century the long period of cultural exchanges between Orient and Occident is completed which had been made possible by the crusades.

In addition, the 14th century is marked by a climatic cooling, which will generate the specialization of the countries of the north of Europe in the craft industry and the trade. Progress slows down very clearly in France and with less measure to the rest of Europe. Progress starts again at the end of this war in 1453, date which coincides with the invention of printing works and the catch of Constantinople: it is the Renaissance.