Qing dynasty

See also: Qing (homonymy)

The dynasty Qing 1644 - 1911 (Sinogramme: 清朝; in Hanyu pinyin : qīng cháo ) is the last dynasty to have reigned on the China. It is not Chinese origin but Manchu. It succeeds the last dynasty of Chinese origin, the Dynastie Ming. It was founded by Aisin Giorio Nurhachi of the clan Aisin Giorio, in the North-East of current China (in Mandchourie). The leading class of Qing spoke Mandchou, a Langue toungouse. The noble Manchu ones were called “men of banners” ( qiren , 旗人 in Mandarin), by reference to the eight banners, the armies of the Manchu confederation. From 1644, the Manchus seized the power in China, founding a new empire, the Empire of Large Qing (Chinese traditional: 大清國; Pinyin: dàqīngguó). If the Qing dynasty had been founded in 1616 under the name of dynasty of Jin Postérieurs, this name was to change for " Qing" , i.e. " clair" , or " pur" since 1636. After being itself seized Beijing in 1644, the Manchu ones extended their capacity until having the major part of the current territory of China. However, the pacification of the country was not complete before 1683.

Throughout its reign, the Qing dynasty strongly joined the Chinese culture. However, its military capacity weakens during the XIXe century and was confronted with the international pressures, the rebellions and multiple military defeats, having for consequence the decline of the dynasty starting from second half of the 19th century. The Qing dynasty was reversed following the Révolution Xinhai, when the last emperor abdicated, Puyi, then 7 years old, on February 12th, 1912.

Formation of the Manchu state

The dynasty was not founded by the Chinese Han who constitute the majority of the Chinese population, but by Manchus, who nowadays represent nothing any more but one ethnic minority in China. The Manchus go down from the Jurchens (女真), people Toungouse S which lived in the area including/understanding the current Russian province of the Krai de Primorsk and the Chinese province of the Heilongjiang. What was going to become the Manchu state was founded by Nurhaci, the chief of a minor tribe Jurchen in Jianzhou (建州), at the beginning of the 17th century. Vassal with the dynasty of the Ming, Nurhaci as from 1582 was mingled with quarrels between the various Manchu tribes, which evolved/moved quickly in a shift for the unification of the Jurchen tribes of Jianzhou. Since 1616, Nurhaci had sufficiently taken to be able on the area car-to proclaim “Khan of Large Jin”, in reference to the preceding Jurchen dynasty. The historians indicate this pre-Qing entity like the dynasty of Jin Postérieurs, to distinguish it from the first Dynastie Jin. Two years later, Nurhaci renonça publicly with the suzerainty of Ming in order to finish the unification of the always allied Jurchen tribes to the Ming dynasty. After a series of military victories, it moved its capital of Hetu Ala to moreover big cities taken with the hands of Ming in the province of the Liaodong (辽东), such as Liaoyang (辽阳) in 1621, then Shenyang (沈阳, which was famous thereafter Shenjing (盛京).

To move its court of Jianzhou in Liaodong made it possible Nurhaci to obtain a capacity based more firmly as regards the material and human resources, but geographically this displacement also brought it closer to the Mongolian tribes living in the plains of Mongolia. Although at that time the Mongolian nation born under Gengis Khan was not for a long time any more that one split up people, these divided tribes always presented a serious threat for Ming. The policy of Nurhaci towards the Mongols was to seek their friendship and co-operation, thus making safe the western face of Jurchen of potential enemies. Moreover, the Mongols appeared the useful allied ones during the war, by helping Jurchens of their riding archers. To seal this new alliance, Nurhaci initiated a matrimonial policy between the nobilities jurchens and Mongolian favorable to Jurchens, while those which were opposed to him were to undergo its attacks. It is there a typical example of the policy of Nurhaci, which ends up becoming the policy of the Qing government; it is in this direction that many historians agree to indicate Nurhaci like true founder of this dynasty. Another contribution important of Nurhaci was the creation of a transcription of the Manchu language, based on the Mongolian writing, as well as the creation of a civil administrative system and soldier which became a key component of the Manchu identity, posing the foundations to unify the Jurchens tribes then divided.

The series of military victories of Nurhaci ended in January 1626 when it undergoes its first major defeat, inflicted by the general Yuan Chonghuan during the seat of the ming city of Liaoning. He died a few months later and was succeeded by his eighth wire, Huang Taiji, which rose after a quarrel as for the succession of Nurhaci. Although a general full with experiment and the chief of two Banners at this time, the reign of Huang Taiji started badly on the military level. Jurchens wiped a new defeat in 1627 on behalf of Yuan Chonghuan. Like the previous year, this failure was due to the superiority of the weapons ming, of the guns acquired near the Portuguese. To rectify the technological and numerical disparities, Huang Taiji created in 1634 its own artillery body (重军). In 1635 the Mongolian allies were entirely built-in a Banner separate of the others, but directly directed by the Manchus. The creation of the first two Han Banners followed in 1637 (which rose eight as from 1642). These military reforms made it possible Huang-Taiji to overcome the Ming troops in a series of battles of 1640 to 1642 on the territories of Songshan and Jingzhou. This final victory had as a consequence the capitulation of the troops most used by the combat of the Ming dynasty, and the permanent withdrawal of Ming the remaining troops of the territories located at the north of the Great wall. On the geopolitical level, this victory gave to the Manchus the indisputable control of the Korean dynasty Joseon, until there vassal of Ming.

On the civil level, Hung Taiji organized a rudimentary bureaucratic system based on the model of the Ming government. Its bureaucracy included/understood a big number of Chinese Han, official Ming who had just gone to Jurchens; however, an ethnic quota made it possible Jurchens to dominate this government, by obtaining the highest stations.

Emperors of the Qing dynasty

The Qing dynasty counted twelve emperors.

Nurhachi, emperor of China of North (1616-1625)
Huang-Taiji, emperor of China of North (1625-1643)
Shunzhi (Shizu) (Aixinjueluo Fulin), emperor of China of North (1643-1644) then emperor of China (1644-1661)
Kangxi (Shengzu) (Aixinjueluo Xuanye) (1661-1722)
Yongzheng (Shizong) (Aixinjueluo Yinzhen) (1722-1735)
Qianlong (Gaozong) (Aixinjueluo Hongli) (1735-1796)
Jiaqing (Renzong) (Aixinjueluo Yongyan) (1796-1820)
Daoguang (Xuanzong) (Aixinjueluo Minning) (1820-1850)
Xianfeng (Wenzong) (Aixinjueluo Yining) (1850-1861)
Tongzhi (Muzong) (Aixinjueluo Zaichun) (1861-1875)
Guangxu (Dezong) (Aixinjueluo Zaitian) (1875-1908)
Xuantong (Xundi, Modi) (Aixinjueluo Puyi) (1908-1912), abdicates in 1912 (proclamation of the republic), then emperor of Mandchourie (1936-1945)

The population was undoubtedly astonished by the conciliating attitude by the second emperor Qing Kangxi. The economic policy was to enrich the peasants and of the special exemptions in the campaigns had as a consequence prosperity in rural environments. Unjustified revolts were broken with power. And the Ming last were cut down. The boom culminated under the reign of Qianlong before does not begin long and unpleasant decline.

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