The printing works is a whole of Technologie S making it possible to reproduce writings and illustrations in great quantity on plane supports, generally of the Papier, and to thus be able to distribute them to large scales. The Technique S go from the composition of the texts to the shaping (Reliure, Pliure…) while passing by the impression and the second reading.

History

The history of the printing works is closely related to that of humanity. Since the man developed means of communicating (cave paintings, writing…), he sought to perennialize his works and to diffuse them.

Egyptian scribes, which engraved the stone, with the monks medieval copyists, who spent their days to reproduce works -   nuns for the plupart  - by recopying them with the hand, the man very quickly sought to automate these means of copy.

See Chronology of the history of the press

In Europe

Thus appeared the first wood engraved allowing the reproduction of many writings, of engravings: the Xylography. Then one used the stone engraved with the back to which one applied the ink which went in its turn being posed on paper: the Lithography. The stammerings of the typography encountered a problem of size: in the event of error, it was necessary all to remake.

Johannes Gensfleisch, more known under the name of Gutenberg, had the idea, about 1440, to use a similar process: the use of the mobile characters in Lead. One allots to Gutenberg the birth modern Typographie, but the latter existed already in Korea. Of this evolution, one will thus retain two types of books. Incunable S, books of the era pre gutenberg published between 1450 and 1500, and books known as modern, resulting from the typography and the more modern techniques such as the offset printing or the photogravure.

The innovation which Gutenberg in Europe will have initiated will play a considerable part in the reduction of the production costs of the book in Europe, and will thus make it possible to widen very significantly the diffusion of it.

The owner of the printers is Saint Jean Porte Latin. Printing works is a long time enorgueillie certain traditions very coloured such as Article IV and one song (D) astonishing accompanying it, With….

The activity of printer remains a long time at the stage of the small craft industry: the wages are weak but work is prestigious. The book is still a rare object and the typographer lives permanently in contact with the well-read men, which distinguishes it. Important privilege: it is entitled to the port of the sword.

A workshop employs on average, in addition to the Master who deals with the corrections, some type-setters who assemble the types and some pressiers. The apprentice is the odd-job man: he must know to read and write Latin and the Greek, and will make his training during two to five years with the service of the Master. After its training, become companion, it will make his “turn of France”, to perfect its trade before being established, as it is the case in all the trade-guilds since the Moyen-âge.

The printers sign their works and one finds their name on the books which they printed. The mark of a Master can be “Blason born” and thus constitute a kind of Héraldique of trade, as it was the case for the companions busy stone masons. The marks of printer comprise letters: the letter X (which evoke the Chrisme), V, S, as well as the Alpha and the Omega. It can make appear symbols like the sphere and the cross. It also massively uses famous “the Four of Figure”, marks mysterious and deeply christic, which did not deliver all its secrecies yet.

The typography occupied the scene of the communication of the 16th century until the third quarter of the 20th century. Modern times saw appearing novel methods of reproduction both for printing works itself office automation. Xerography, process of photocopy, the mimeograph, the facsimile (telefax). Graphic industry was seen equipping with new tools with the advent of the offset printing where one replaced the characters in relief by a process of carryforward of ink and water on a plate offset. The parts not to be printed receive water and the parts to be reproduced, the ink, which is hydrophobic. The plate is then in a hurry against a strainer and the strainer prints by carryforward the sheet. This process made it possible to introduce the impression in Quadrichromie, i.e. in colors, the spectrum being reproduced starting from three primary colors (cyan, magenta and yellow) to which one added the black in order to save on the colors and to give more contrast to pullings colors.

In Asia

The Xylographie was practiced as of the 9th century in China, Korea and with the Japan. A million Buddhist texts Chinese were printed on the order of the empress Koken between 764 and 770, and were locked up in as many Stûpa. Several hundreds of these small documents arrived to us.

The oldest dated xylographes were discovered:

  • in Korea - 704-751: the Dharani-sutra of the pure light, discovered in 1966 with Kyongju
  • in China - 868: it is the Sutra of Diamond, first known important specimen, delivers Buddhist with engravings, found in 1907 by Aurel Stein in the Grottes of Mogao close to Dunhuang. It is preserved at London (British Museum).

The Chinese were the first to use the mobile characters, at the 12th century. This technique their made it possible to preserve the cultural traditions accurately. The Chinese inventor pi Ching would have employed as of 1041 of the mobile terra cotta characters.

The metal characters would have been born in Korea about 1234. The oldest book printed starting from mobile metal characters goes back to 1377. It is about the Jik ji sim kyong.

Technology: evolution and diversity

Printing works was revolutionized in the years 1880 by the invention of the Linotype (Otto Mergenthaler, 1884). This machine accelerated the composition in substituent with the manual registrage of the mobile characters a seizure with the keyboard of each line of text: not only the operation it was accelerated, but also surer. The input of the text to the keyboard results in the mechanical composition of a matrix, which is used then as mould for a casting of an alloy tin-lead, forming a type-bar of only one holding. It is this line block which was encrée and which carried out the impression itself. The company Monotype Corporation Ltd created with the passing of years its clean font faces, inspired by the historical cast iron S, and the majority are still protected by Copyright today. The impression by machines Linotype machine replaced traditional printing works as from 1900 and reigned without division until the beginning of the year 1970.

In the years 1940, one imagined to substitute for the type-bars a plate which could indifferently comprise text or an image. This printing plate fixed ink at the places wanted by electrostatic load (plate known as “electrographic”) or by insolation (“stereotyped”). This technique gave rise to the first photocopiers and opened the way with the design of the plates offset.

In parallel, the composition was computerized. One saw appearing, at the end of the Années 1960, beginning of the Années 1970, the first processes of Photocomposition. A system of mirrors, in which the character S were openwork, served as “stencil key set” with the light which was going to impress a significant surface, the “bromide”, which was then revealed and fixed like an ordinary photographic paper. Texts thus composed -   with the kilomètre  - were going then to be gone up on the supports and the page layout was done manually. The completed assembly, one carried out a stereotype of the whole then one insolated the plate which was going to be used for the impression. Photocomposition and the pulling offset went perdurer almost twenty years, the processes evolving/moving with the appearance of the Laser which was going to insolate films directly, making disappear the systems with mirrors. As of this time, the books “were not printed more” as it was still the case with the Linotype machine: one does not see any more the pressure of the characters on paper, ink is simply absorbed on paper at the place where it is fixed by the plate offset.

The great turning of this end of century was the appearance of the first personal computers and especially of the Macintosh, at the beginning of the Années 1980, which saw the birth of the Desktop publishing (CAM). This microcomputer allowed for the first time to do everything on the same station: acquisition of digitized images, Final improvement of image S, creation of vectorial drawings, page layout with dedicated software, allowing to amalgamate texts and images. These operations were already possible on dedicated systems but at the prohibitory cost. Macintosh, in particular, made it possible to make this trade accessible while causing certain skids.

Parallel to the evolution of the composition, it is all the graphic Chaîne which knew, these last years, of deep upheavals. Thus, starting from the station of composition, photoengraving and page layout came to associate various peripherals of writing such as the CtF (Computer to Film) , called so flasheuses, which make it possible to insolate films of each color of impression (four in the case of the quadrichromy) in order to produce the plates by optical transfer. Large progress which makes it possible to do without the manual assembly of the page layouts. However, the optical transfer has this disadvantage which it makes lose of the definition in the points of screen and does not exempt final improvements on plates, because there can be “pétouilles”, parasitic deposits due to dust.

The following evolution was the CtP (Computer to Plate) -   engraver of plaques  - where the film was replaced by the plate (aluminum bases in general, sometimes out of polyester) which will then be insolated or “engraved” directly starting from the electronic file. Then, the operator does not have any more but to fix his plates directly on the press.

Last evolution in date, concerning the traditional press offset, it is the loading of the CtP system on the press. It is what one calls DI (Direct imaging). There is not then more intermediate operation between the station of page layout and the press, engraving being done directly on the cylinder plate carrier of the press offset. Favors: exceptional location of the various groups and time-savings of chock.

Another crenel was born from the last evolutions of the photocopiers, they are the presses known as numerical where all the traditional system was replaced by systems of transfer of image of the photocopiers type, allowing instantaneous and faithful pullings then document of entry (file, test…), but with a largely higher cost, which holds it, for the moment, with a short pulling.

Connected to Databases, these processes of numerical impression also make it possible to produce documents containing of the texts and the variable images.

Various types of processes of impression

Traditional processes (with printing form)

The offset

It is the process which produces the largest volume of printed (stamps, magazines, newspapers, packing, books…). It is based on the repulsion of two antagonistic products: water and grease (here, the Ink and the Water). Put an oil drop in water and you will see that there is no mixture of both.

In this process, the image “copied” from the printing form (metal plate) after treatment will be represented by the “sensitive layer” fatty by nature, while the part without image will be represented by stripped naked metal of its layer (treated aluminum) which is absorbent for him.

The plate will be then humidified, the “white” parts will fix water, while the “fatty” image will push back water and will be able to accept ink (fatty).

The process off holds its name of English “set” because the image is deferred plate printing to a “rubber strainer”, then strainer with paper.

  • Pulling: of less: 1000 to several million specimens.
History: The lithography evolved to metallography and Senefelder itself used zinc and brass, then tin, without much success. It launched on foot a machine equipped with a cylinder engraved strong; the main difficulty at the time being preparation of printing surface. In 1879, a patent is deposited by Trottier and Missier giving rise to the calcography; the use of a preparing rubber allowing the carryforward of the image. Henri Voirin endeavoured to give a vigorous impulse to this process. This machine makes it possible to print on flexible surfaces, fabrics, leathers, skins… but it runs up, in France, with a tough resistance near the owners and working lithographers of the time. Auguste Marinoni and Jules Michaud made patent, in England, on September 4th, 1884, under number 12010, a sophisticated machine printing one or more colors on metal, wood, papers and others; it is question of an indirect rotary press. A baptized machine Diligente was presented by the Marinoni house, with the World Fair of Paris in 1889. Jules Voirin , wire of the inventor, taken again the study of this system and presented in 1910 to the exposure of Graphic arts, a news roto-calco Voirin. The Anglo-Saxons have habit to allot to the American printer Rubel , the merit to have invented in 1904, the Offset process.

The Photogravure

It is a process in which the printing form is in hollow. The print roll is out of copper or stainless and is engraved by a Diamant, chemically or with the Laser.

It is the size and the depth of the “cells” which determine the tonality of the color and reproduce the gradation of the image.

The Encre used must be very liquid to make it possible to fill the cells well.

  • Pulling: of a few hundreds of thousands to several million specimens.
  • Use: the use of art papers of weak grammage (LWC allows: Light Weight Coated: less than 50 g/m ²) with a good power of the colors.

The Flexographie

It is a process in relief taking again the principle of the Typographie. The printing form used is generally a Polymère. The image is obtained by photopolymerization (physicochemical modification by the action of UV).

The flexography allows the impression on very varied supports. One prints primarily food packing. The flexography makes it possible to use inks with fast ultra drying or by ultra-violets.

  • Use: process not traumatisant for the support, which thus authorizes: corrugated cardboard, bags (paper or plastic) and even of the newspapers (in Germany in particular).
Quality obtained is average because the process does not authorize the use of fine screens but of large progress are in hand.

The Serigraphy

Serigraphy (Screen printing in English) car its name of the silk with which the “screens are manufactured” (kind of stencil key sets) which are used with this technique.

Part of this screen is masked (by use of a photographic process) and ink crosses only the naked parts of the silk screen which interposes between the support and ink.

This technique has the advantage of being able to apply to supports varied and not necessarily flat (bottles, boxes, textiles, machines, wood, etc…) and on large surfaces.

  • Use: impression using powerful colors and sharp on various materials: food logos, marks, packing on boxes, bottles, Tee-shirts, panels, wood, metal, plastic.

The Tampographie

Process of impression based on the principle of the rubber stamp.
  • Use: keys of keyboard, buttons in the cars, beer capsules…

The Stencil or Cyclostyle

It is about a process employing a stereotype on made up celluloid with the typewriter, which is reproduced using a solution containing alcohol on a rotary press (the Cyclostyle) also called “machine with alcohol”.

Numerical processes (without printing form)

Jet of ink

An overpressure is created in a tank of ink and involves the ejection of a drop of ink. This overpressure perhaps created thermically or mechanically (using a piezoelectric crystal).
  • This drop can be created continuously then guided on the media to print or in a receptacle to recycle it in the case of the Continous Ink Jet or CIJ. This process allows important speeds of impression but with a less quality.
  • Danslecasde the Drop One Demand (DOD) (drop with the request), this drop is generated only if it is desired on the media. The print speed is less but quality is better.

Electrophotography or Xerography

The print roll is covered with a special Polymère which is enlightened with the Laser what induces a change in its properties. It then will attract fine particles contained in a Toner liquid or solid (the liquid toners give a better quality because they make it possible to transfer more particles for the same mass). Ink goes, thereafter, being transferred on paper then heated (cooking) in order to ensure its cohesion.

Thermal impression

A ribbon containing of ink is heated and piqué where a point of screen is desired. One takes again the principle of hot gilding thus.

Various stages of the manufacture of a printed paper form

The manufacture of a printed paper form passes by various stages gathering of know-how and different and complementary materials.

Preparation

The preparation of a work intended for the impression passes by the phases of reflection on the product, the writing of its contents, the gathering of illustrative materials (photographs, drawings, graphs, etc), then on the outline of what should be the end product. With this intention, one will carry out a rough on paper or screen in which one will generally put False-text. Once the validated outline, one will provide at the following stage the hardware requirement to work the product.

The model

The Maquettiste will carry out one or more versions of page layout with provided materials (texts, images, rough…) and one will pass at the stage of the composition. In the de luxe edition the model is an artistic means of creativity where the typographical disciplines, the Graphisme, the design of the Reliure are sometimes entrusted to the same professional whose name will be quoted.

The composition

The composition is the stage which consists has to format a text or a page of text in order to be exploitable for the impression. Initially it known as “typographical” and was manually carried out by assembly of characters out of lead, then automated later by machines of the kind “Linotype”.

Thereafter the Photocomposition appeared which generated the text by projection of a beam of light through a matrix (kind of negative screen) producing the result by insolation uninterrupted on film in roller. These machines were often connected directly to a developer for an automatic treatment uninterrupted.

Later the advent of data processing allowed the input of the text (composition) directly on computer with the assistance of a data-processing software. The result being obtained on easily exportable electronic file. Thus often the text directly will be seized and provided by the customer.

In certain cases one uses a technique allows to recover already printed text using a scanner and of a software of Optical character recognition (OCR).

The page layout

The page layout consists to join together and assemble all the elements (texts, images, illustrations, funds of colors) which constitute the finalized page.

It is the work of the Desktop publishing (CAM). It takes as a starting point the model provided to make the page layout and follows on its screen of computer the railroad which define the pages and the sites of the headings, publicities, Hors-texte, etc --

Photoengraving

The photoengraver enters the round then. It is him which goes, thanks to the scanner, to digitize the images and the various elements which will compose the finalized page. It has in load the final improvement of the images with a software dedicated: adjustment of the Colorimetry and the contrast of the images, elimination of dust, the defects, and put on the scale… It also takes care of the assembly and the installation of the elements which compose the page (often several images will be built-in, of the text and the funds of colors). It will then substitute for the “model of placement” an image finalized in “high-definition” and will provide to the printer either of films obtained by “flashage”, or a controllable numerical file via a system OPI.

The flashage

This operation carried out by the photoengraver or a specialized company consists in producing films necessary to the manufacture of the printing form (plates out of zinc or aluminum). The equipment used (Flasheuse) transposes information of the numerical file finalized in concrete and exploitable elements by the printer: “woven” films of the four colors which compose the quadrichromy. These films (or the numerical file) are also used to carry out the contractual test submitted to the customer for approval. After possible corrections a last final test called “BEATS” (Approved for printing) is provided to the printer which will be able to then carry out the plates of impression and to endeavor during “pulling” to respect this BLDG.

The test

The numerical document completed, one will produce the contractual test (called wrongly Cromalin or Iris, which is marks of systems of tests) which will anticipate the définif aspect and the conformity of work (the typography, the site of the illustrations, the respect of the colors). This document become “Approved for printing” will be used as reference to the printer which will have to respect the aspect of it. The test is known as contractual because it is used as reference in the event of litigation. The test can be produced starting from films, it “analogical” (Cromalin, MatchPrint) or starting from the finalized numerical file and is said then “numerical” (Iris, Cromalin DIGITAL)

In the past the tests were carried out in photoengraving on presses with counter-proofs giving to a result enough flator but difficult to reproduce by the printer. However much of printing works being equipped with presses printing two colors at the same time, they asked to the photoengraver tests accompanied by “progressive ranges” variation of the assemblies of colors used by the machine of the printer (green range for some, violet for others). The evolution of the number of presses 4-colors is such as well as the disproportionate cost of the investment and complexity for the photoengraver that this kind of tests was completely abandoned.

The good to be engraved

The “good To be engraved” must be distinguished from the “Approved for printing”. This term practically any more is not used nowadays or is employed wrongly. It was employed formerly when the photoengraving was still an art and not an industry. It is necessary to recall (or to say) that at that time the usual average time to finalize a work in photoengraving varied few days at several weeks. The Photoengraver was then held to present to his customer a provisional “state” of his work. The test then called “test” almost always involved inevitable final improvements and corrections. Once the customer satisfied with work, the corrections carried out, the improved images, it gave the “good then to engrave” BAG duly dated and signed. This document gave green light for the manufacture (thus engraving) of the elements required to the printer. The BAG released the photoengraver of any responsibility in connection with possible errors (page layout, or orthography, typing errors Syntaxe, size or font face…) who could have been noted a posteriori. Term “BAG” should not be employed any more nowadays.

The imposition

When the printer receives films or the numerical files of all the pages which constitute the whole of its order, its role consists in envisaging the Imposition of it, i.e. to lay out the pages by “books”. This provision is particular with its system according to its press, of the format, the number of pages, folding and the shaping. Often the printer carries out a test of control called also Ozalid in order to make sure of the good sequence of the pages and correct folding. This document will be folded and cut out in order to make of it a Morasse . The imposition can be also controlled using a Punchinello: small paper with the format A4 folded as much time than there are installations in the book, as a small booklet whose pages are numbered. Once unfolded, Punchinello will give the plan of imposition.

The creation of the plates

The plates of impression which constitute the printing form of a work can be realized in two manners:

In a traditional way starting from films provided or obtained by the technique of the flashage CtF.

Or directly according to the numerical file finalized by the technique CtP

In the traditional method, the films “are copied” by “insolation” from the metal plate which is then developed by a chemical process.

The Approved for printing or BEATS

At the end of the work of photoengraving or CAM, when the complete page is assembled, the images and the texts set up and the adjusted colors, a control is carried out by means of a test on paper, initially with an internal aim to check completed work and to also subject this one to the approval of the customer. This one can then require corrections or modifications and a new test will have to be to him subjected.

When the customer is satisfied and accepts the result, it signs and dates this test which becomes the approved for printing ( BEATS ). This document then starts the work of the printer, the realization of the printing form and will be its reference frame (the standard to some extent).

He will guide the printer which will have to conform to “the image” of this BEATS throughout pulling.

Impression

One starts by carrying out the “chock”: installation of the plates on the cylinders of the press offset: rotary machine with sheets or , then the “driver” proceeded to the “adjustment of the inkpots” (estimate of the flow of ink according to consumption according to the parts clear or dark of the image which will be printed).

Then comes “the pre-inking” which consists in beginning the impression slowly to let ink be distributed on the rollers, “to nourish” the strainer and to check that the image is printed correctly. This part of the pulling which is a phase of adjustment is destroyed, it is called the trowel paper.

As soon as inking is correct and after checking of the “bar of control” (element of measurement and quality control), one refines the result to be in conformity with the BLDG.

If the customer is present at pulling, it signs the “Good then To be rolled” (in its absence, the foreman or the driver takes up this duty).

Pulling itself can start and it is then the “follow-up of pulling”.

The Shaping

The printing once finished, complex work including/understanding several Cahier S assembled and laid out according to the selected Imposition arises is on a sheet flat and in “pile” (it is the case of the machines with sheets) or in continuous band (it is the case of the Rotative S).

It is then necessary individually to recover each layer or each book and to finalize the product.

It is the work of completion called “shaping” which comprises several operations: folding of the book (to find the pages in the normal order of reading after the folding), old Massicot (to cut the document to the final format), Assembly of the books (by puncture, joining or fastening), Binding (in the case of Book S or re-examined of luxury) and distribution.

In the case of the Rotary S, the operations of folding, guillotining and even the assembly are often automated and carried out uninterrupted on the same machine.

The techniques differ somewhat if they are Magazine S, books, label S or the newspapers.

  • guillotining consists in cutting the sheets to the final format because one always works with a format of page slightly larger, this surplus called “cut” or “bad temper” ensures a clearer presentation of the image after guillotining.

  • the Pliure is done with a Plieuse (in the case of a book of several pages) in a precise order so that the pages (Folio S) are followed in the good reading order. There exist various kinds of folds; the crossed fold, the parallel fold, the economic fold, in accordion, the rolled fold, in wallet…
  • There are three kinds of Plieuse S: with knives, with pockets and mixed which combine the two preceding ones.

The management of the numerical files

The whole of the necessary informations to the treatments can be included in files with the formats XML, This makes it possible to follow the production in real-time. This format is a standard which one finds on http://www.CIP4.org.

Anecdotes

  • the oldest preserved printed book is a Chinese roller of five meters gone back to 868 recalling an extract of a work crowned Bouddhiste.
  • the first European book printed with mobile characters is the Latin grammar of Donat custom in 1451 by Gutenberg.
  • the first Latin edition of the Bible is that known as Bible with forty-two lines in 1453 by Gutenberg.
  • the first book printed in French is the gilded Légende of Jacques de Voragine by Barthélémy Buyer in 1476 with Lyon.
  • the high circulation figure of the modern edition on paper is the IKEA catalog, drawn with nearly 100 million specimens.

Tools and technique of the industry of the impression

Professional living rooms

In France

  • Graphitec, with Paris: triennial
  • Intergraphic, with Paris and Lyon: annual
  • TPG with Paris: triennial (itinerant living room being held in Paris only every nine years).

International

Formations

  • French School of paper mill and graphic industries Site of the EFPG

  • Estienne University of arts and graphic industries Site of the school Estienne
  • general-purpose College Claude-Garamont in Colombes
  • Lycée_César_Baggio of Lille Site of Baggio
  • College Gutenberg de Illkirch Graffenstaden
  • Coetlogon College in Rennes
  • College Andre-Argouges in Grenoble * School of the Goblins to noisy-the-large (93) Site of the Goblins

Random links:Limagrain | Laliostoma | Soulières | Raymond Rébujent | Gladiator COP