Parar el truco

The paper is a Matière formed starting from Fiber S cellulose Végétal are. It is presented in the form of thin sheets. He is regarded as a Matériau basic being used to write, print, pack… He is also used in the manufacture of various components (filter S…)

History

Antiquity

One can call paper all that consists of cellulose fibers (in majority), therefore of vegetable origin, put in suspension in water then drained on a plane surface. Whatever the process employed, that it is clean or dirty, fine or coarse, that there are only added cellulose or other matters (wool, silk), it is the setting in suspension in the water of the fibers and their draining which make it possible to constitute paper.

One often uses the image of the wasp which makes its nest by recrachant mixed cellulose. Even if the idea to manufacture paper does not have surely anything to see with this activity. Before the appearance of paper, the writings were preserved on Parchemin S or papyrus and on all kinds of surfaces (barks scales, sheets of trees, small planks more or less fine).

The typed (vegetable felt made of the liber of certain beaten and assembled barks: to see ANATI, the Art of typed at the Strange 2005) of which one knows the use through the representations on rock faces and in caves in the whole world, used in the form of clothing, of ornaments, can be regarded as the very first ancestors of paper.

Paper carrying the known oldest message to date, discovered in China, would be gone back to -8, under the dynasty of Han of the West (-206, 25). It is about a fragment of letter whose paper is made starting from fibers of flax, on which a score of Sinogramme S old were deciphered. It was found in 2006 with Dunhuang, in the province of the Gansu, and was dated according to other written documents found at the same place from the excavation. According to a Chinese tradition, one thought that paper had appeared to the III E in China, under the reign of Qin Shi Huang (founder of the Qin dynasty). A history told that people would then have located the white deposits of scum on the rocks following the risings and would have tried to reproduce it.

According to another Chinese tradition, it would be Tsaï Lun, Minister for the agriculture which, in 105, would have codified for the first time art to manufacture paper and would have improved some the technique in order to produce it in mass.

Of VIIIe Century to the Middle Ages

The trade secret of papers of quality will remain Chinese and Japan board until the 8th century. At the time of the Battle of Catholic students in 751, the legend wants that the Arab , victorious , made captive of many Chinese and thus recovered the secrecy. It is probable that they knew the use of paper well before this date and that they used it themselves after well having starched it and polished. They will quickly include/understand the interest of this new support to propagate the Islam, and Samarkand will be the very first production center of the world Musulman. In addition they will improve manufacture of it while incorporating in its preparation of the rags. Paper arrives then in Occident with the Arab conquests . One finds it with Baghdad in 793, with the Cairo in 900, with Xàtiva (San Felipe, Spain) in 1056, in Sicily in 1102, with Fabriano (Italy) in 1276 but in a completely different form, and in France at the beginning of the 14th century. Paper is then a rare good and edicts on the recycling of paper are marked. One incorporates in it then of the old rags which take value quickly, from where the expression to fight like ragmen .

Rebirth

As that had been the case a few centuries before in China, by creating a system of impression in mobile matters towards 1440, Johannes Gutenberg, Johann Fust and Peter Schöffer gave rise to the Imprimerie in Occident what made it possible to popularize the Connaissance by the use of the books. That increases the use and thus the manufacture of paper. Paper then becomes the object of the beginning of an industry, with use of the hydraulic power. As from the 17th century, mainly because of the War Thirty Year old which modifies commercial flows in the valley of the Rhine, the Western South becomes a very great paper area in which the Dutchmen, invest massively. The majority of the mills are rebuilt, increased. One creates the new ones and during more than one half-century, to the wars of end of reign of Louis XIV, these areas become one of the greatest Western paper production centres. It was claimed that the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes had caused a massive exodus and the stop of the paper mills but they are mainly the wars and the difficulties which they involved in the maritime trade between the South-west and Holland which reduced exports by 70 to 80%.

In 1673, the Dutch make a capital invention for paper industry, while developing the Dutch Cylindre which makes it possible to replace the Pile with mallets in the trituration of the rags, they carry out profits in terms of energy, of Labor and speed; unfortunately the quality of the pastes is some reduced. It will be necessary to await the 18th century and the industrial revolution in England, progress of the transmissions and the metallurgy which it involves, to see this cylinder spreading in all the Europe. In fact the Dutch pile especially allowed the development of the paper machine which will be born at the end of the 17th century, while making it possible to manufacture with the same quantity of energy three to four times more paste on the same site.

Industrial revolution

It is incontestably at the 19th century that the manufacture of paper industrializes with the invention of the first Paper machine uninterrupted of Louis Nicolas Robert (1761 - 1828) in 1798. The paste supply is then made uninterrupted and paper leaves in reel. In less than twenty-five years, the engineer Bryan Donkin improves “his” machine (not less than 40 different models!). Towards 1825, the paper makers are equipped in Europe and with the the United States: the machine is copied, imitated. Towards 1850 appears the first machine to manufacture the paperboard multi-layer. At the same time, one counts more than 300 machines in England, nearly 250 in France and almost as much in Germany. Each one of these machines, though very narrow and very slow compared with the modern machines, was able to ensure the production of 10 traditional tanks served the hand. Louis-Nicolas Robert will not draw any benefit from his invention.

The first machine to be undulated French is installed in 1888 in the the Limousin.

The price of hemp increases, because the navy with veil using it mainly is replaced gradually by the navy with vapor. Difficulties of supply rag are felt and the Industrie seeks news raw materials. The Bois starts with gradually replacing hemp. Friedrich Gottlob Keller deposits a Brevet in 1844 on the manufacture of paste of Bois, obtained using a Meule.

Second half of the 19th century is marked by the recourse to the Chimie. Work of the French Anselme Payen shows that in all Matière Végétale exists a white and fibrous substance, the Cellulose, and that it is possible to recover it by chemical reactions. These discoveries make it possible to obtain fibers of better quality and thus to increase speeds of production.

In 1937, in the United States of America, the “very constraining Marihuana Tax Act” in the production of the hemp, pushed by the forest lobbys of propiétaires, being also owners of the press, ring the knell of hemp in paper mill. It will then be used more only for the tickets and the cigarette paper. The United States will quickly become the first paper producer, mainly forest and are it still nowadays, largely in front of China, the second (80,8 compared with 37,9 million tons), thus taking part in one of the first causes of deforestation of planet.

Heavy industrialization is then launched. In 1908, the largest machine has a Laize (width) of 4,30 m and rolls to 165 m/min. In 1910 the speed of 200 m/min is crossed. In 1935, the largest machine makes 8,15 m of Laize and turns to 425 m/min. The course of the 1000 m/min is crossed in 1958. Currently the machines make up to 10 m of Laize and turn to nearly 2000 m/min.

XXIe Century

To the beginning of the XXIe Century, the ecological problems, involved in the Deforestation, lead with the return to the front of the scene of the methods of recycling like to the progressive return of the production of fibrous plant with fast and ecological pushing like the Chanvre or the Lin.

Manufactoring process

Development of the paper pulp

The Pulp paper is the basic material. It can be produced starting from various components:

the Wood and other lignocellulosic matters (bagasse of cane with sugar, straw),
fibrous plants like the hemp or the flax,
the fabric ( rags ),

paper (in the case of recycling).

The fabric is sorted, washed and put to rot during several weeks. The rags are then cut out and frayed in several Moulin S provided with Pile to mallets with nails. The relative scarcity of the textile led to the use of wood.

The wood is barked then disintegrated (the logs “are grated” using a Meule to which one adds many Eau). The particles then are filtered and cleaned in several successive baths in order to obtain a homogeneous Pâte.

The modern paper pulp is generally a mixture of paper and wood fibers to which is added flexible in order to improve resistance of the produced sheets.

Development of the pulp paper recycled

The paper manufactured containing fabrics, mainly of Chanvre (which, in Europe, was the only type of paper used until the middle of the 19th century) already consisted of recycled matters: old linens, ropes, jagged fishing nets. Besides one calls these papers, always used in the Estampe for example, of papers “cloth”. The paperboard, as for him, is manufactured starting from paper recovered since the 18th century: it is seen that the idea of recycling is not new in the paper field.

Recycled paper became a need to preserve the environment, also the valorization of waste papers is it increasingly important: in 2002,5,5 million tons of papers and paperboards one recovered, on 11 consumed million.

The pulp paper recycled is elaborate according to a particular process. The old papers (resulting in general from newspapers, magazines and paperboards) are shredded, filtered then put to soak in tanks. De-inking remains optional, but it is possible to withdraw the Encre paste while making him undergo several successive cleanings, with soap, air, even of the solvent chemical (the solvents being able to be very polluting, they must be used the least possible). These operations of washing and treatment use very little, even not water.

Recycled paper can be used for the majority of the printing; moreover, the printers are now accustomed to working with these increasingly required papers. Grammages energy of the 70g to the 350g are thus easily available. The quality of impression on this type of paper is excellent, including for the photographs, and the newspapers are primarily of recycled origin.

See also this artisanal method to manufacture paper recycled at home…

Production of the sheets

Complementary treatments

One can then add surface treatments to improve his printing quality while making pass the sheet in a size-press (photo paper for example). The size-press called “size press” is placed before the last driers. They are two rollers laid out side by side horizontally which forms a basin that one feeds with desired sauce. Paper passing between the two rollers is coated sauce coloured to tint paper for example.

Certain papers receive a joining of surface with an aim of ensuring cohesion outside of the sheet, in order to maintain fibers of surface likely to be raised suddenly. These pieces of fibers which adhere badly can clog the characters of the typewriters, to hang the feather at the time of the manual writing or to cause imperfections in the printed flat tints.

Thus certain papers are coloured on the surface, or that the art paper receives a first preparation.

The once dried sheet can undergo the Calandrage which consists in again pressing the sheet between several heavy rollers in order to make paper quite smooth. One speaks then about glazed paper or calendered.

In order to improve printing quality of it, one can deposit on the surface of paper on only one face (paper labels) or on the 2 faces (paper for impression) a pigmentary layer, one speaks then about paper " couché". These pigmentary layers are mainly made up of mineral loads (carbonates and kaolins mainly) as well as synthetic latexes (acrylic styrenes butadienes or styrenes) and are deposited by means of machines called " coucheuses" , they aim to regulate the absorption of inks in order to preserve their pigments on the surface. At exit of the drying press paper is of aspect " mat" or " semi mat" but, after an operation of calendering it can be returned " brillant".

One then obtains a Bobine which is cut up with the size wanted with the winder. The rolls of paper can be used such as it is (impression on rotary Presse) or reconditioned in the form of sheets of various formats

Worldwide production

Production of paper and environment

The manufacture of paper requires great quantities of Eau: one needs water to extract cellulose from fibers of wood and energy to dry paper. The Chlore which is used to bleach paper is polluting chemicals. However important progress was made by using products of bleaching less polluting than chlorine (Hydrogen peroxide or Azote) and by improving “looping” of the circuits in order to reduce in an important way water consumption.

Paper industry is subjected to the respect of strict environmental standards, like the reasoned exploitation of the Forêt S, the Recyclage of waste water, etc the trees come from plantations whose Biodiversité is weak: birches in the Scandinavian countries, maritime pines for the forest landaise or eucalyptus in Amazonia for example.

To note that the production of paper accounts for 14% of the forestry development. Paper industries are generally owners of the forests which they exploit in a cyclic way. Thus, with the Brazil, it is possible to cut Eucalyptus of culture every 4 years and that suffices for a factory which produces as much paper than the France. The Déforestation is generally due to wood-cutting exotics for furnishing and the expansion of the cultures. Indeed, the wood used by paper industry comes either from the sawdusts (waste of sawmill) or of young trees which should be cut to let open out the others and which one calls " wood of éclaircie".

The manufacture of recycled paper requires less water and of energy that the traditional manufacture of paper pulp, but a certain quantity of chemicals which are not without environmental impact: It is necessary to clean and désencrer the paper recovered with soapy solutions, and to whiten again it with the Chlore or the Hydrogen peroxide.

It is necessary from 3 to 12 months so that a newspaper breaks up in nature. The recycling of paper makes it possible to avoid sending it to the Décharge or to incinerate it. Paper can be recycled up to 5 times without its quality being faded. As for paper paperboard (food bricks, etc), it can be recycled ten time and be transformed into pieces of furniture, paperboards or toilet paper.

A ton of recovered paper makes it possible to produce only 900 kg of recycled paper; that is to say a loss of 10% with each recycling.

Measuring units of paper

Is known as “paper” the materials made up of vegetable fibers whose grammage is lower than 224 g/m ²

Measurements of quantity of sheets

the oar: 500 sheets

NB: a ream corresponds to a quantity of sheets lower than 500 sheets, but the use makes that this direction is lost gradually.

the hand: 25 sheets
the finger corresponds to 5feuilles.

These units rise from the manual visit of the sheets of paper in the old rooms of sorting. The workers counted the sheets of paper and held them on the hand at a rate of 5 per finger.

Measurements of quality of paper

the thickness (out of micrometers, for example the writing paper has a thickness of 110 micrometers)
the grammage, one also speaks about force (in grams with the m ², for example the cigarette paper weighs 15 g/m ² and the writing paper 80 g/m ²)
the hand: thickness ratio/grammage
smoothed Bekk (S): time of flow of a volume of air on the surface of paper
the porosity Bekk, or permeability to the air: flow of air through a paper
opacity
whiteness (measured to 457 Nm)
brightness: generally measured with 20,60,75 and 85°
the roughness, which is the intermediate size of the bumps present on paper, is measured in µm.
puffing out It which measures the increase thickness of paper when one considers a pile of it (standard paper Band-drawn is very puffing out, whereas the bible paper has one puffing out very weak, it is the relationship between the measurement of 5 sheets (measured together) by the grammage
the color
rigidity
the length of rupture
the Modulus Young this measurement carried out uninterrupted on the paper machine makes it possible to regulate the parameters of manufacture to the wire of the production (this operation can be automated.
the coefficient of friction of paper compared to another material (paper, metal, rubber…)
the cohesion of a paper: Property constitutive of paper translating the homogeneity of its internal behavior (cohesion of fibers and the hydrogen bonds).
etc

Uses of paper

Office automation and Printing works
Bible paper
Toilet paper
Tracing paper (translucent paper)
Serpentine Confetti,
Decoration: Crêpee paper, Wallpaper
Cigarette paper
Protection against the bad weather and the glance: Packing, Package-gift, Sunshade S and panels of the Japanese traditional dwellings.
Origami, the art of the folding of the Paper.
the Non-woven material: veil fibers more and more used to replace fabric, in particular by medicine and the surgery (fields and sterile clothing of single use). There exist several types of manufacture, of which paper technique.
thermal Paper

Grammages according to the use

Cigarette paper: 12 g/m ²
Newspaper: 42 g/m ²
Impression - writing: 65-80-90 g/m ²
Cardboard (calling card…) : 120 g/m ²
Photographie 10x15 files: 175 g/m ²
Photography 10x15 quality: 250 g/m ²
Cover of book: 240-250 g/m²

Paper in the culture

Symbolic system

The weddings of paper symbolize the 37 years of Mariage in the French folklore.

Allusions

Serge Gainsbourg composed the piece small papers .
Ray Bradbury published in 1953 a novel baptized Fahrenheit 451, in reference to the Température of spontaneous combustion of paper in the air, in degrees Fahrenheit (either 233°C).

Gallery

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