Papa Callixtus III
The typography is art to assemble character S mobiles in order to create Mot S and Phrase S. This technique of Imprimerie was developed towards 1440 by Gutenberg which did not invent printing works in mobile matters but the characters in Plomb.
The typographical characters are joined together in families (Roman, with footings, imagination, etc) then in police forces (Arial, Garamond, Times, Helvetica, etc) then in pig iron and cast iron (body, fatty, Italique, etc). They are distributed in box drawers called breakages. Each box is called the crucible.
The use of the typographical characters with an artistic aim is old; it was renewed at the 20th century by the Graphisme.
History of the typography
From a technical point of view, this art evolved/moved little with the wire of time. The whole of the typography is governed by a system of special size. The unit is the not which is converted into cicéros (which is worth twelve points). Any composition, length, width, are a multiple of points. For example twenty cicéros are worth two hundred and forty points is roughly new Centimètre S. One still finds these points to currently give the dimension of a character of computer. One will say then of Times body 24 (points). The first character sets in Bois, were engraved with the hand (Xylographie). Quickly, they were molten with an alloy of lead (80%), Antimoine (5%) and of tin (15%) in matrices. The workman typographer made use of a dater on which it aligned the characters, read with the backs, from left to right, picked in a box called “breakage”. The characters top of breakage were called the capital (capital letters) and those of bottom - the tiny ones - the Bas-de-casse. The dater made it possible to ensure the justification of the Ligne, i.e. its length. Between each word, one inserted a space (this word is female when it indicates the object out of lead, just as line space, strip of lead or wood being intercalated between the lines) and one supplemented while inserting in certain cases of the fine spaces between the letters in order to perfect the justification of it. Once the composed lines, one placed them on one galée, maintained in skew. These lines were attached with several turns of string in order to make interdependent the unit and to move it more easily. This block of lines called composition was fixed in a frame in Fonte using corners out of wooden initially, and thereafter with nuts of tightening. The frame was then fixed on a press.The typography semi-was then automated (Ludlow, manual composition then cast iron of the type-bar) then automated (Linotype, composition on a keyboard then cast iron of the type-bar) in order to directly melt the lines made up of only one holding.
Today still, of the workshops of typography exist a little everywhere, because the typography makes it possible to do certain small work of city (calling cards, writing paper, announcement) with lower costs as well as cuttings and groovings. For the simplest needs, in fact typographical terminals automatic provide these functions for a few euros.
At the time contemporary the Graphisme often uses the typographical characters like elements of a artistic work: Poster S, compositions on fabric or even Book S!
The Typographe S were also pioneers of the North-American labor movement. The oldest Québécois trade union and always existing Canadian are the International union of the typos. Moreover, the first Canadian working deputy was the typographer Alphonse-Télesphore Lépine.
The code of typographical practice
The typography is a Art and like any art, it has its rules and its constraints. In France, the trade is framed by rules which are gathered in the typographical Code published by the Room typographical and reactualized each year. In a similar way, the French Swiss typographers use the Guide of the typographer . In Belgium, it is the Belgian Institute of Standardization which holds the official documents. These various codes are sometimes contradictory.
The typographical Code imposes sometimes specifications different from the typing Code taught in the schools of secretariat. Thus, the typing Code forces never to have of space between the last letter of a word and the typographical sign which follows it, while the typographical Code request to intercalate there a fixed space protected when the sign is made of two parts (; : ? ! % etc), for reasons of Lisibilité in drives out variable (the process decreases on the contrary legibility in fixed hunting if fixed space protected is replaced by a space justifying).
Certain rules are in addition recalled for the composition of these articles. The typographical Code applies indifferently to any composition, that it is mechanical (typography) or data processing (CAM, word processing). The typographical Code also assists from the “good use” by pointing out the rules governing the abbreviations:
- One shortens Mister by Mr. and not Mr. nor Mr. , which is the abbreviation of English mister ; one writes on the other hand Dr. and Mgr (“monseigneur”) because in their case this R final decides. The French Academy recognizes however that the most suitable abbreviation is M .
- the abbreviation of Sirs is Misters , Madam shortens Mrs. , Miss , Miss , whereas returns Me to “Master”.
- However, in an encyclopedic text, it is of use to avoid the abbreviations. One will write “Doctor Folamour then received monseigneur Don Camillo. ” or “Main Corbel on a perched tree held in its nozzle a cheese. ”.
The Code specifies also rules concerning the use of the capitals and lower case. These rules differ from one country to another. The uses of the anglophone countries require to capitalize the noncommonplace words of the titles (example: The Art off Computer Programming ), which is regarded as unacceptable in France ( the Art of the programming ). One décapitalise obviously neither proper names, nor German substantives quoted like such, even in the titles.
The Code recommends to write, in a text, the numbers in letters and not in figures. It is generally recommended to avoid the abuse abbreviation for the comprehension of the texts.
The names of way and the communes are regarded as a whole, provided with hyphens and are capitalized. Thus, it is necessary to write “street Old woman-of-Temple”, “Saint-Germain-in-Bush hammer”, etc
Lastly, the Code recalls that French is well an accentuated language and that the old “tolerance” not to accentuate the capitals (at the time them typewriters with roller) does not have any reason to extend to the typography: in French, the capitals must be accentuated when the police force which one uses has the suitable character. The majority of the police forces used in data processing comprise such accents, the typographical pig iron and cast iron also. And this rule is all the more true on Wikipédia since the encyclopedia, in its French-speaking version in particular, uses the coding UTF-8 which allows the writing of all the possible signs Diacritique S thus that characters of other writings (Armenian, Chinese, Hebrew, Japanese, etc). Recall one clearly any more cannot in the Lexique of the typographical rules of use with the HMSO :
In French, the accent has full orthographical value. Also is advisable it to be opposed to the tendency which by saving in composition, preaches the removal of the accents on the capital letters.
The typographical Code thus homogenizes the presentation of documents of various origins within the same work.
In the Années 1980, the arrival of microprocessing and desktop publishing softwares strongly democratized the access of the creation of documents towards speakers come from other horizons that the typography. The low costs of the equipment and the generated time-saver caused important economic disturbances in the world of photocomposition. The market changed hands and the typographical quality of the produced documents sometimes felt some.
Rules in constant review
The typographers have three permanent objectives: homogeneity, the Legibility and coherence. These objectives are sometimes in conflict between them and make the subject of debate regular. A point on which the opinions of the typographers remain held in spite of the specifications of the Code is the management of the final punctuation of a quotation between quotation marks when this one arrives at the end of the sentence:
- It decided: “The question will not be put. ”. One passed after.
- It decided: “The question will not be put. ” One passed after.
- It decided: “The question will not be put. ”
- It decided: “The question will not be put”.
The first formulation asserts the fact clearly that the quoted sentence finished well there. Lastly, of the sentences like:
- you Wanted that he answers you “You come! ”?
But the general rule concerning the use of the quotation marks is one cannot clearer. A quotation, such as those shown in example, initiated above after one two points starts then with opening quotation marks, the first word of the quotation takes a capital letter and the final point (or it final punctuation mark) comes at the end of the sentence before the closing quotation marks.
It is it should be noted that at the end of the novel of Georges Orwell, 1984 , when the antione overcome Winston Smith is seen entrusting a oiseuse mission by an obscure sub-committee of a sub-commission of the ministry for the Truth, it acts precisely of a typographical problem of punctuation ( It was something which had milked with the question of the radix point. Were they to be placed inside the brackets or outside ? |langue= ).
References
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