Palmyre

Palmyre (in Greek old Πάλμυρα ) is an oasis of the desert of Syria to 210 km in the North-East of Damas. Its Semitic name, attested already in the files of Husband (XVIII E) is Tadmor (rear RTL تدمر). It is always its current name.

The origin of Palmyre

The history of Palmyre to the Bronze Age is badly known: the city indeed developed on a Such which was at the 1st century covered by the terrace with the Sanctuary with Bel. It is at first century BC that the city is mentioned in the gréco-Romans sources. It belonged to a commercial network connecting the Syria to the Mésopotamie and the Mediterranean coast.

The Bible allots the construction of Palmyre to the king Solomon ( And it builds Tadmor in the desert II Chr VIII: 4).

Palmyre gréco-Roman

When the Séleucides took the control of the Syria in 323 before Jesus-Christ, the city becomes independent. In 41 before Jesus-Christ, the Romans, led by Marc Antoine, try to plunder Palmyre but they fail, the inhabitants of the city being taken refuge with their goods on other side of the Euphrate. One from of deduced that Palmyréniens of this time were still essentially nomads, living breeding and trade caravaneer.

Integrated into the Romain Empire under Tibère, within the framework of the Roman province of Syria, Palmyre reached its apogee under Hadrian, which gave him the free statute of city in 129. It was then a splendid city, which developed until under the Severe ones. In 212 the emperor Caracalla promoted Palmyre and his neighbor Émèse with the statute of Roman colony. The Roman army maintained a garrison there auxiliary soldiers in a camp in the north of the city.

During the crisis of the IIIe century, Palmyre escaped the Persian invasions which devastated Syria in 252 and 260. After 260 it is notable of Palmyre, Odénath, which was charged by the emperor Gallien with coordinating the defense of the East. When its widow Zénobie tried to seize the power like empress with her son Wahballat, Palmyre was found implied a little in spite of it in a Roman civil war. In 273, overcome by Aurélien with Antioche then with Émèse, Zénobie was folded up with its troops on Palmyre, where Aurélien continued it. Initially the notable ones of Palmyre joined in Aurélien and drove out Zénobie, which was stopped. Aurélien left in Palmyre a small garrison and returned to Italy. At this time in the city a revolt burst which tried to give the capacity to Antiochos, the father of Zénobie. Aurélien reconsidered these steps, subdued the revolt and exerted reprisals on the city. Its principal sanctuaries were plundered, and the emperor requisitioned all the western district of the city to install there with residence the Ière Légion Illyrienne.

With the IVe century and thereafter, Palmyre is not any more thrives it quoted caravan of formerly. It is a garrison town, occupied by the Ière Légion Illyrienne, stage of a military road linking the region of Damas to the Euphrate (the Strata Diocletiana). The monumental part of the city is protected by a rampart which leaves in-outside all the southern district (between the wadi and the Efqa source), perhaps abandoned district on this date. Under Constantin Ier the forts of the Strata Diocletiana were for the majority abandoned but Palmyre remained until the VIe century a Roman city occupied by the army, while the steppe around was occupied by communities of monks Monophysites, and was controlled by the Arab tribes Ghassanides, Christian women and allied of the empire. Churches are built, while old pagan temples as the concealed of Baalshamin or that of the sanctuary of Beautiful are converted into churches and are decorated with murals.

Under Justinien with the VIe century the enclosure was reinforced turns, and the water conveyances were restored. The city which, according to Procope de Césarée, was " become a désert" for a long time; , accepted a new garrison which constituted the advanced station of Syria against the invasions of Persians or Saracènes (Arabs).

the town planning of Palmyre

In the time of its apogee at the beginning of the IIIe century the town of Palmyre was much wider than the current archeological site, however very vast. The majority of the houses were made of believed brick, which hardly left visible vestiges. What one sees today it is the stone skeleton of the city, i.e. the public monuments, or sometimes simply the columns which surrounded the atrium of the richest residences, while the remainder disappeared.

The city initially developed with the site of the sanctuary of Beautiful then, when the large square was built with the Ier century, it extended between the sanctuary from Beautiful and the Efqa source in south-west (where today there are nothing any more but the gardens of the oasis). Around the city came to set Arab families of wandering origin, each one around its tribal sanctuary, like that of Baalshamin or, all in the west on the road of Émèse, that of Allat. During the IIe century these suburbs were integrated into urban fabric with the construction of the monumental district structured around the large colonnade.

For this prosperous period, Palmyre was an opened city, deprived of rampart. There was a wall (traditionally called " wall of the douane") surrounding a very vast sector all around the city, but this brick or stone wall believed according to the sectors did not have any military function or of prestige, it seems was a simple administrative limit for the payment of the taxes fixed by the " tariff of Palmyre" , dating from the emperor Hadrian. At the end of the IIIe century a defensive rampart was built with haste by employing again stones taken on monuments, and protecting only the monumental district, while the remainder of the city was undoubtedly abandoned.

the company palmyrénienne

The very many inscriptions found on the spot make it possible to know the organization of the city at the time Roman. Palmyre adopted the Greek institutions: she is controlled by a swell , assembled principal landowners, and a demonstrations (people) made up of the citizens. The particular responsibilities are entrusted to magistrates taken in the ball, such as the " stratèges" or " agoranomes".

These institutions are remained in place until the IVe century, including seems it during the crisis of the IIIe century, when Odénath was greeted title of resh (in Greek " exarque") of Palmyre: it must be a question of a military command. As for the title of " king of the rois" carried later by this same Odénath, and taken again by its widow Zénobie and its son Wahballat, it does not mean however that Palmyre changed mode, since the inscriptions show that at that time it is always the swell and the demonstrations which make the laws.

Concurrently to these civil institutions, the elites of the city were organized in colleges of priests for the worship returned to the principal gods. Most prestigious of these colleges was that of the priests of Beautiful, chaired by the " symposiarque" (" chief of the banquet").

The tradesmen and the craftsmen of Palmyre were organized them also in corporations: one knows those of the blacksmiths, the goldsmiths, manufacturing rafts of goatskin bottles (named inflatable rafts keleks used until the XIXe century to descend the Euphrate or the Tiger).

the trade caravaneer

Palmyre was Ier century with the IIIe century more the great power commercial of the Middle East, taking over Pétra, the caravan city of the Nabatéens. Palmyre exploited a caravan road which, passing by caravanserais in the steppe, gained the edges of the Euphrate and skirted them until the area of Babylon. From there these caravans gained the kingdom of Mésène to the mouth of the Tigre and the Euphrate. Ships started from there to gain the India or other ports of the Indian Ocean. One recently found a votive shelf left by Palmyrénien named Abgar, into 256, on the island of Socotra to broad of the Somalia.

The caravans of Palmyre were seasonal and annual companies. The various merchants joined to group their forwardings, under the responsibility of a " synodiarque" or " chief of caravane" , powerful tradesman who dealt with part of the expenses. So caravanserais were identified by the archeologists at the exits of the city, it is in the middle of the monumental district that the shopping mall, a place surrounded by shops and named was " agora" of Palmyre.

Communities of tradesmen palmyréniens expatriates were installed with residence in the various stages of this sales network. One undoubtedly knows thanks to the inscriptions the existence of this diaspora with Séleucie of the Tiger (in the south of current the Baghdad) to the Ier century, then with Ctésiphon (capital of the Parthes, vis-a-vis Séleucie), with Vologésias, quoted commercial founded by the Parthes not far from the site of Babylon, and especially with Spasinou Charax (or Charax de Mésène), capital of the kingdom of Mésène. There, the community palmyrénienne if was established and so influential that of Palmyréniens could occupy there of the official functions near the king. Other Palmyréniens were established in Egypt on the edges of the Red Sea. Lastly, there was a community palmyrénienne with Rome even, installed with the IIe century in the district of the Trastevere.

This traffic caravaneer continued until years 260, including when Mésène and Mésopotamie were under the domination of Sassanides Persians. It is after the assassination of Odénath and the attempt at seizure of power by Zénobie that the caravans cease being attested. Much later with the Life century, it is the town of Mecque in the Hedjaz which will take the succession of Palmyre like turntable the commercial caravaneer.

The exotic goods whose Palmyre thus made trade of Ier in IIIe century are badly known in detail. It is certain that they were essentially invaluable goods, representing a great value under a low volume, like fabrics of luxury (in particular silk), the pearls, the invaluable stones, the aromatics. Palmyréniens themselves, at least richest, were large amateurs of these products. The reliefs representing the Palmyréniens rich person in Parthian costume show that these costumes are covered with lines of pearls, which hardly come at that time but from the India or the island of Ceylon. In addition one found in the tombs of Palmyre of the fragments of Chinese silk trade, sometimes embroidered dragons.

Warriors of Palmyre

To protect these caravans, Palmyréniens were made also soldiers. The territory of Palmyre, in the north of the city, had with the IIe century of true stud farms in the steppe where horses were raised, at ends which can be only soldiers. The city itself had a garrison of the Roman regular army, but the Bedouins or the peasants of the territory of the city trained warriors assembled on horses or camels and combatant with the lance or the arc.

These Arab warriors were enlisted in the Roman army, especially at the time of the Severe ones. Some were incorporated in the regular army, like the XXe Troop of Palmyréniens, unit of cavalry which formed the garrison of Doura Europos at the edges of Euphrate under Severe-Alexandre. Others, being useful like numeri , abstract troops ordered by Roman officers but keeping their traditional equipment, were based on the edges of the the Danube or, for Méhariste S, in the province of Numidie (in current Algérie). It is not doubtful that this cavalry palmyrénienne constituted most of the military forces of Odénath then of Zénobie.

Gods of Palmyre

According to Jean Starcky, Palmyréniens of the hellenistic time adored a named supreme divinity Bôl (" Seigneur" in the dialect Araméen of Palmyre). Very early, under the influence of Babylon, this supreme god was designated like " Beautiful " , Babylonian form. Other gods were associated to him as Aglibol (whose name preserves the old form) and Malakbel , literally " the Angel ( malak ) of the Lord ( Beautiful ) ". They seems are there the historical gods of Palmyre.

With the arrival of other Syrians or increasingly many wandering Arabs, other gods come to add their sanctuaries to that of Beautiful, even are assimilated to it. Thus one raised a temple with the Syrian solar god literally Baalshamin (" the Lord ( Baal ) of the Skies ( shamin ) "), which was compared to Bel . Other Arabs built in the west of the city a sanctuary to the Arab goddess Allat , comparable by the Greeks with Athéna. In this temple, excavated by the Polish archeologists, two statues of Allat were found: the first, of the Ier century, represents the goddess like a lion protecting a gazelle, the second, more recent, is quite simply a marble statue of Athéna, in the style of Phidias, imported Greece. In the south of the sanctuary of Beautiful the sanctuary of Nébo , a god of Babylonian origin was ( Nabu ), assimilated by the Greeks to Apollon.

Other gods are attested in Palmyre: Arsou and Azizou , gods protective camel drivers of the caravans, as well as the god Hammon , of origin undoubtedly Egyptian.

The most important worship was returned to Bel , the protective god of the city. It is with him that is dedicated the immense sanctuary of Beautiful, is surrounded by gantries, is decorated tens of statues of benefactors auant contributed to build it. This sanctuary, about contemporary of the Temple of Jerusalem built by Hérode, is very comparable for him, as well for dimensions as for the general provision and the architectural style. On the immense square open on the city by propylées surrounded by two turns were a basin, a monumental furnace bridge for the sacrifices, a room of the banquets where met the priests of Beautiful, and especially the concealed monumental, which undoubtedly only the priests could reach. Inside, two elevated niches (the equivalent of the Holy of Holies ) contained the divine statues. Concession with the Empire Romain, one placed there at the Ier century also the statue of Germanicus and Tibère.

The god was perhaps also present in the form of a Bétyle. A niche, dug in the wall external of the concealed , undoubtedly sheltered a crowned stone which the pilgrims could thus reach, like that of the Kaaba of Mecque. A low-relief represents the procession of the crowned stone (or is other thing?), placed on a camel in a qubba closed by hangings, and with the passage of which the women veil their face completely in a ritual way.

The Islamic city

Palmyre was taken in VIIe century by the Musulmans, when it opened its doors in 634 with Khalid ibn Al-Walid. Under the caliphs omayyades the city evolved/moved. The construction of shops to the right in the middle of the large colonnade transformed this principal artery into souk, as in the other towns of Syria. The caliphs made build in the steppe around Palmyre of the luxurious fields, like Bkhara with south-east (former strong Roman transformed into castle omayyade), or the splendid palate of Hisham with Qasr el Heyr el Gharbi, in the west of the city. Palmyre itself had to suffer from the civil wars which precipitated the end of Omeyyades.

At the time of the Croisades Palmyre depended on the emirs Bourides of Damas, then passed to the capacity of the atabeg Zengide Toghtekin, then of Mohammed wire of Shirkuh, as an emir of Homs dependant on Saladin. It is when Palmyre depended on the Bourides of Damas that into 1132 the chamberlain Nasir AD-DIN transformed the sanctuary of Beautiful into fortress. The concealed temple was transformed into mosque. To the XIIIe century the city passes under the control of the sultan Mameluke Baybars (the text of a decree of Baybars relating to the rights of pasture of the inhabitants of Tadmor was found engraved on the wall is concealed of Beautiful).

The city was plundered by Tamerlan in 1401, but seems to be raised about it. With the XVe century Ibn Fadlallah Al-Omari describes Tadmor by praising its " vast gardens, the prosperity of its trade and its curious monuments". At the 16th century Fakhr ED-DIN Al Maany made build a castle-extremely, Qalat Ibn Maan, on the mountain which dominates the city in the West. With the Othoman time, Palmyre declines. With the XVIIe century the city seems to have found its dimensions of the Age of Iron: it is nothing any more but one village locked up in the strengthened enclosure of the old sanctuary of Beautiful. All the remainder was abandoned.

XVIIe century at our days

From the XVIIe century, Palmyre becomes famous in Europe bus of the European travellers published the descriptions enriched by seizing engravings of them. Its splendid ruins, the traditional quality of its architecture going up at the time Roman (2nd century), form a contrast seizing with the desert around.

With the XIXe century the Othomans install a small garrison there, while the archeologists from Europe and from the United States begin the systematic study of the ruins and the inscriptions. After the First World War, Syria is occupied by the French within the framework of a mandate of the Société of the Nations. The French Army establishes in Palmyre a unit of meharists and built an airfield for the air control of the steppe. The archaeological excavations are organized on large scales: the village which occupied the sanctuary of Beautiful is destroyed and the population rehoused in a modern city built in the north of the archeological site, while the ancient temple is restored.

Since the independence of Syria the modern city of Tadmor developed considerably. The airfield became a military base, but the project to make a civil airport of it to develop tourism concluded forever. There is also a prison of disaster reputation. As in Antiquity, the city saw agriculture in the oasis, of the Bedouin breeding in the steppe, while the profits formerly drawn from the big business are replaced by the considerable incomes of tourism.

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