A oppidum (of Latin N. oppidum , pl. oppida : raised place, fortification. To note recommended French plural: oppidums ) is a high place (generally located on a hill or a plate) whose natural defenses were reinforced by the hand of the man at the time of the Celtes.

The oppida are known in particular thanks to descriptions of Jules César, in the War of Gaules . They are characterized by ground walls and stones, reinforced by wood cross-pieces assembled perpendicularly by long iron cards (20 with 30cm) as with Bibracte. This type of wall particular to the Gallic oppida is named murus gallicus . Contrary, in British Isles, where many strengthened enclosures are known, of simple liftings of ground or stone walls were used.

The name oppidum is usually used to indicate sites of very different size, energy of a few tens to several hundreds of hectares: the enclosure of the oppidum of Manching, close to Ingolstadt in Bavaria (Germany), thus could surround up to 350 hectares of ground. In addition, the sites known under this name could be used like forts since the beginning of the first age of iron until the First century of the Christian era, the denomination of oppidum applying only as from the 2nd front century. J. - C. Consequently, this diversity is found in the part which the oppida could play.

Definition

In the War of Gaules, César as well uses the term of oppidum for open habitats (Geneva) as strengthened (Bibracte). It brings closer even certain fortified towns to the urbs term. One learns according to the terms from César that the oppidum is thus an economic place, from exchange in which it could supply its legions. However, it never defines clearly this term in its work. Always it is that one applies here a Latin term to another civilization As a Celt, there is a term which agrees well to these places, it is dunon (Latin dunum that one finds for example in Uxellodunum, Augustodunum) which means fortress, strengthened enclosure; this one gave as old Irish dún , the extremely, the Forteresse. It is also a strengthened site which evolves to the city as the term Welsh DIN or Germanic the tuna justifies it which gave town in English. There thus exists well an ambiguity in the definition of this term, used to sometimes indicate a fort, sometimes a city. However, as Stefan Fichtl explains it, the oppidum includes/understands the concept of closed space. Does one have to take then into account the borders symbolic systems, the Latin Pomerium in addition to the material borders which the ramparts form to define the oppidum? The question remains always open at present.

In archeology, the term of oppidum, took an increasingly precise direction since great work of excavations undertaken under Napoleon III. It is used for a precise framework: the end of continental civilization for the period of the Tène (front IIe and Ier J. - C) and a surface of distribution specifies which extends from the south of England as far as Central Europe, excluding however the cities from the Mediterranean circumference which differ from their architecture and their history. In this precise context, a oppidum is defined by precise morphological data of surface, architecture and layout of the rampart as well as type of doors. Definitions divergent according to the archeologists and the areas, but they tend to be standardized. Thus, a site of a surface higher than fifteen hectares can be regarded a Oppidum and of less size as a Castellum.

The role of the oppida

On the continent and particularly in Gaulle, some Oppida could be regarded the first shapes of “cities”, or as “proto-urban centers” of barbarian Europe, which gave place to the denomination of “civilization of the oppida” to indicate the socio-economic reality which prevailed the day before the war of Gaules. The difficulties of interpretation on the question are numerous: one knows infrastructures of the network of the oppida only what archeology lets to us foresee. As, divergent opinions of the archeologists as for the exact importance as these places could have in Celtic civilization, and in particular in Gallic civilization the day before the Roman conquest.

As show it excavations achieved on the sites of Manching, a mount of the Luxembourg (Titelberg), or with Bibracte (on the Beuvray mount, in France), it is acquired that the most important Oppida knew a regular and dense distribution of constructions on their site, at the latest starting from IIe century before the Christian era.

The organization of some oppida during the final period of Tène could be brought closer to a certain extent model to the antiquated cities of the traditional world. It seems that in the beginning, indeed, the particular development of certain sites was related to the existence of a place of important worship (Entremont, in the north of Aix-en-Provence or the Alésia of the Mandubiens).

For Stephan Fichtl, ( Gallic people , Paris, 2004), the term of civitas employed by César in its Commentaires also could correspond in certain cases to a political reality in the middle which the oppidum, true chief town, could concentrate the political power of people or a federation of people on its “customers” and in a delimited territory: the best illustration of this assumption is the example of the Éduens, whose supreme office (of Vergobrets) was exerted inside this territory. Concentrations of Mediterranean imports discovered in several oppida as for them révêlé the importance which some of these “fortified towns could have connecting” in the sales networks the “barbarian” world to the Mediterranean world, as of before the period laténienne.

Some oppida , indeed, could play a major political role at the time of the Celtic principalities of the first Âge of iron while making it possible a local aristocracy to control the ways of passage and to sit its capacity on a territory which can go up to 80 kilometers in diameter (like in the case of Hohanesperg, in Germany, cf Patrice Brun, Princes and princesses of Celtic the , Paris, 2000).

The oppidum of the Lassois Mount, in the Coast-with Or, which is associated with discovered fall princely from Vix, is an example of these fortresses of the end of the Period of Hallstatt.

Fortifications

See also: Celtic Fortifications

Typology

Several shapes of ramparts of oppida exist, but two main categories prevail: " fortifications of barrage" and " enclosures of contour".

¤les fortifications of stopping is pressed on a topographic element which protects the site naturally. One can distinguish various denominations for these structures according to nature of the natural elements:

• the barred spurs where one reinforces by a rampart the side not protected by the rocky outcrop.

• the barred meanders (ex: Besancon), where the meander of a river, of a river,… is closed by a stopping.

• the barred junctions , where the city is located between two meeting water arms; stopping protecting the opening from the oppidum on the ground.

• the edges of cliff or river , where the stopping protects, in the same way as for the junctions barred, the opening of the city on the ground.

• the segments of peak where one protects by two ramparts the access roads to the peak.

¤les pregnant of contour (ex: the Beuvray Mount, or " Bibracte" time of César,…), as for them, do not have truly different forms. A rampart encircles the city, " posée" on a mount (such as a hill,…) or to same the plain (Manching) and generally the same datum line follows.

During Tène Finale, many oppida with a fortification of stopping obtains a complete enclosure which revêt an aspect purely symbolic system (and not soldier), delimiting the city of the countryside. In the same way, the enclosures of contour do not follow any more one line datum and can descend slopes. This revêt thus not a military aspect since this weakens them in these points. On other site finally, one sees appearing geometrical layouts of ramparts like circles (Manching).

Structure of the rampart

One distinguishes two types two ramparts in the Celtic world: the slope massive and the rampart with internal poutrages, more complex. Of course, the ashlar slope and facing differ according to the areas since the Celts have to adapt to materials of their environment, but, they do not correspond to differences in the construction industry of the wall. The principal architectural divergences differentiating the areas come from the poutrage intern out of wooden. O. Buchensenschutz and I. Raltson proposed a classification of the ramparts according to this poutrage.

• horizontal ramparts with poutrage

• the rampart of the type Ehrang

It draws its name from the German site of Ehrang in the Eiffel where it was described for the first time. This one is composed of an internal assembly of horizontal beams regularly spaced, superimposed out of grids and fixed using stones, as well as external stone facing. Space between the beams is embanked with ground and stones.

• the murus gallicus

Baptized thus by César in the Commentaires on the War of Gaules, this wall is built in the same way that the rampart of the Ehrang type, to which one added large iron cards and nails allowing to connect the beams between them. The internal facing with the oppidum when with him is replaced by a ground slope which gives access the top of the rampart.

• vertical ramparts with poutrage (pfostenschlitzmauern)

• the rampart of the type Altkönig-Preist

Name of two German sites, this type of rampart has spaced vertical posts of a few meters in the internal and external facing. The internal and external posts are connected by horizontal beams inside the rampart. Like the other type of wall, it is filled of fill.

• the rampart of the type Kelheim

It bears the name of a Bavarian site. Its external facing is identical to the type Altkönig-Preist and it has the same slope as the murus gallicus. Horizontal beams then fix the posts in the ground.

• the ramparts with massive slopes are great rises in grounds preceded by a ditch.

Doors

The doors play a key role in the fortification since they are an obligatory crossing point to enter the oppidum. Opening in the rampart, in fact the weak points of the enclosure require a very particular protection. Unfortunately, these timber constructions were not preserved. Thus, the archeologists did not find any trace of the system of closing of the Door of the rebout on the oppidum of Bibracte. On the other hand, of the holes of posts and some wood samples could be found on other sites such as Manching what made it possible to put forth assumptions on these doors. If the general aspect of the door is certain, the shape and the size of the turns which surmount it are only assumptions which are based on the size of the carrying beams.

See too

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