Archaeological research shows that one manufactured already oil as of in Syria and with Cyprus, like in Crete around 3000 years before our era. Then towards 1700 years before our era, the technique improved and the first " presses with arbre" simple are known with Ougarit, in the north of Tyr (Lebanon).

The trade of oil appeared as of the Bronze Age, and the Hittites of Anatolia got of them on the côre Asia Mineure, whereas the Pharaon S of Egypt and the kings of Mésopotamie bought some in Syria. In the palates minoéens of Crete, oil was stored in great quantity in vases called pithoi , and in the palates mycéniens of the continental Greece one found many earthenware jars with oil and shelves written in Linéaire B mentioning the Idéogramme oil ( élaion ). This trade was very controlled, because oil was strongly dependant of economic and religious capacity.

After a recession due to the disappearance of several Eastern states towards 1200 before our era, the demographic expansion of the age of iron in the Mediterranean involved the creation of many colonies by the phenicians in North Africa (Carthage) and the south of Spain, like by the Greek in minor Asia, in the islands of the Aegean Sea, in Sicily, and in the south of the Italy and the France (Marseilles), where they imported their culture of the olive-tree and developed his trade. According to Pline Old the, the olive-tree was absent from Italy under the reign of Tarquin Old the (-616 with -579). At sixth century BC the magistrate and wise Greek Solon promulga of the Athenian laws authorizing the to make the trade of the olive oil. At the fourth century BC, Alexandre Large the conquered the Eastern Mediterranean, as well as the empire Perse, and the trade developed even more.

In the following centuries, vis-a-vis the oil increasing demand for the food, lighting, the care, or the sporting and religious practices, one developed new methods of production and one wrote technical handbooks, like those of the Greek botanist Théophraste, of the Latin agronomists Caton, Pline and Columelle (originating in Spain), as well as Carthaginian Magon. Unification of the bordering countries of the " Nostrum" pond; by the Roman Empire facilitated even more the trade and the production, which became almost " semi-industrielle" in certain areas of Spain and North Africa, by the promulgation of laws like the Lex Manciana at the 2nd century encouraging the plantations and the irrigation in the imperial fields.

The fall of the Roman Empire, the extension of Christianity, then of civilization arabo-Moslem woman involved a change of the modes of consumption, production zones and trade-circuits. Venetian Génois and benefitted from the Croisade S to develop an active and very profitable trade with the East and to give an impulse to oleiculture in front of the new needs created by manufacture for the Savon (appeared at the 9th century) and the oiling of the textile.

From the 16th century opened one era of continuous expansion, which will lead the olive-tree to its maximum territorial extension, under the influence of the increasing demand of a Western company increasingly industrialized for the soap factories, the textile and mechanics. With the discovery of the New World, Spanish introduced the olive-tree into their old colonies of Americas, like the Argentine, the Mexico, the Peru (in 1560), the Chile and the California. And it is at the 19th century, at the time of the apogee of the demography of the campaigns and colonization European, that the olive-tree knew its maximum extension. Although the surface of the olive groves decreased during the 20th century, the productivity gains in the culture of the olive-trees and the extraction of oil led to quintuplement worldwide production of olive oil between 1903 and 1998.

Longevity

Unfortunately, it is not possible to know the age of an olive-tree with certainty. The Dendrochronologie cannot be used on a stock of olive-tree. This gasoline does not present circles of growth Nets and individualized. The age of an individual can consequently only be one estimate based on indirect indices - historical diameter, aspect, documents - which appear often not very reliable and bring to estimates sometimes quite far away from the real age.

In a natural state, when an olive-tree becomes old, it produces rejections (called “souquets”) starting from its stock, and, thus, indeed never dies of old age. The new tree which replaces it is not another olive-tree, but another itself, a new expression of the same genotype. The olive-tree can however die by the effect of freezing, the moisture of the ground, a failure in the fight for the occupation of the vital Espace with the concurrent species, and probably of the dryness. A saying of Provence says that “as much the fig tree that the olive-tree do not die without heirs”.

The oldest trunks which one can observe are however those of the cultivated trees, because the farmers eliminate the rejections regularly, if they want to preserve the old trunk. If this maintenance is stopped, the old trees hasten to give many starts-up.

It is said that certain olive-trees of the Mount of Olives with Jerusalem are contemporary of Christ. There exists with the South-Lebanon 2700 years an old tree in the village of Chaqra called " the tree of Perses". With Roquebrune-Cape-Martin (the Alpes-Maritimes), a worthy old olive-tree of more than 2000 years posts impressive 20 meters out of waist measurement with multiple rejections.

Myths and symbols

The olive-tree is also one of the plants most quoted in the Bible, where the Colombe released by Noah after the Déluge (Genèse 8/11) returned while holding an olive branch in the nozzle after having found a ground emerged, and where Jacob coated with olive oil the stone of Beth-El after its vision of the celestial scale (Genesis 35/14). In the Judaism and the Christianity, the olive oil is used for sacrilizing oilings and the olive-tree symbolizes peace, the reconciliation, the blessing and the sacrifice; the oil used in the ritual ones of the Judaism must obligatorily be in a hurry with the hand.

In the Coran, the olive-tree is a blessed tree, symbol of the universal man, and it olive oil is divine source of light to guide the men ( moubârakatin zaytounatin in verse 35 of the 24e Sourate entitled " Lumière" / Year-Nour ).

On the flag of UNO, the crown of olive branches surrounding the world symbolizes universal peace.

The green dress of the members " immortels" French Academy owes its name with the green embroideries which decorate it and which represent a reason for branch of olive-tree. This reason also at one time decorated the French part of a frankly.

Utility

Food

The European commission recognizes " Labels of origin protégée" (AOP) and of the " Geographical ascriptions protégées" (IGP) for the European olive-growing production.

Olives of table

See also: Olive, Olive of table

An olive of table must be suffisemment large (between 3 and 5g), fleshiest possible with a core being detached easily and a fine but elastic and resistant skin, containing a strong sugar content (minimun 4%) but a content of the lowest possible oil for a better conservation.

For “black olives with the naturalness”, the olives are gathered with maturity, then washed with the water clear and plunged in a Saumure to 10%-12% of sea salt. They are consumable at the end of 6-8 month. II acts of a typical preparation in Greece (variety Conservolea ) and in Turkey (variety Gemlik ). In Greece one also produces for the local market “black olives with dry salt” with too ripe fruits of the variety Megaritiki

For green olives, the fruits are gathered when they are sufficiently large (from August at October). The treatment which the fruit in the confectionery must undergo to eliminate its natural bitterness and to preserve it did practically not change in its broad outlines since millenia, and lasts several days. In the South of France, the confectioners practice traditionally in the following way. One soaks initially olives during a few hours in a soda solution has 2%. Then one cleans them several times at pure water during several days until water is clear. One then immerses them during ten days in a brine made up of water and sea salt, but certain confectioners add additional ingredients, like fennel for broken olives of the Valley of the Beams of Provence. The " désamérisation" is complete and the olive is from now on edible. Then possibly the operation comes from conservation, whose type varies according to the type of preparation: the Pasteurization, salt or cold. In certain preparations one can add aromatics to offer to the consumer an infinity of savors, flavors and color.

Europe did not establish a specific regulation on olives of table as that exists for the olive oil. The regulation is world with the Codex Alimentarius (Standard Codex on olives of table which gives minimal specificities), and international with the unified qualitative Standard applicable to olives of table in the international business established by the " The olive-growing Council international". In France exists the Code of the honest practices for olives of table.

Oil

See also: Extraction of the olive oil, Mill with oil, Olive oil

The technique of extraction of the olive oil is an only mechanical operation. That wants to say that the finished product is pure fruit juice which did not undergo any chemical conversion. One initially will crush (" détriter") olives in order to make a paste of it, then to press (" pressurer") paste obtained or to centrifuge it to extract the juice from them, and finally to centrifuge this juice to separate oil from water (" margines"). Oil is then put to elutriate in tanks or is filtered to eliminate the last wet particles.

Each oil has a specific taste because it is an alive product influenced by many factors, such as the climate, the Terroir, the variety, the maturity of the fruit, the time of storage, the techniques of manufacture, or the assembly. Some are particularly important, as the date of harvest, because the oils obtained starting from precociously collected green olives result powerful and fruity, whereas from ripe olives more tardily collected they are yellower and softer. Or the temperature of extraction, which must be carried out cold, because the flavors start to change with the top of 27°C. A cold extracted oil preserves its phenol S natural (Antioxydant S) and ensure a better conservation to him. And finally speed of work, because the taste of olives will change quickly because of the process of Fermentation which engages after harvest. To obtain an oil without trace of fermentation, the olives must be in a hurry in the 24 hours after harvest.

The olive oil can be used as well raw (in Sauce S for salad or in the place of the Beurre in the paste S for example) that cooked (for the Cuisson of Viande S or Légume S or for the Friture). It is important nevertheless not to use it with more than 210 °C, because this temperature is the " not fumée" beyond which it worsens, but that is more than the average temperature of crackling towards 180 °C.

The olive oil grows rancid less quickly than of other food plant oils thanks to its iodine index relatively low: 78/88 compared with 83/98 for the groundnut oil and 120/132 for the sunflower oil. It is preserved better if it is stored with the expenses and is protected from the light. The olive oil is disturbed from 5 with 10°C and is solidified completely with -6°C. It is preferable to consume it in the two years following its manufacture.

The caloric intake of the olive oil is of 9 cal/g because it is made up from approximately fat contents 99% (Lipide S). The 1% remainders are called made up minors. It is primarily (by order of importance): the Squalène, the triterpenic alccols, the Sterol S, the phenol S, and the Tocophérol S. the fat contents of the olive oil are made up of Triglycéride S. Those consist of fatty-acids of various kinds (mainly mono-unsaturates), the distribution is characteristic of the olive oil, and on a level of more thorough detail, various varieties or place of production.

The possible defects of an olive oil are the rancid (Oxydation), the mildewed (too strong oleic rate of Acid free), been unemployed (excessive Fermentation of olives in heap before the extraction of oil) and the binds S (fermentation of the particles of pulp in the oils not filtered with or without sedimentation). These defects have in particular like consequence a disappearance of the attributes land-mark and prickly (" ardence").

The various categories of olive oil receive a denomination corresponding to criteria fixed by an international regulation. Oils which one can find in the retail business are: L ` virgin olive oil extra , L ` virgin olive oil , L ` olive oil made up of and refined virgin olive oil olive oils , and L ` olive-residue oil .

Other preparations

The Tapenade is a receipt of kitchen of Provence, mainly made up of crushed olives, Anchois and obviously of tapena (Câpre S in Occitan), from where its name. It can be tasted on the pastes, or simply by pasting it on bread, or by soaking vegetable sticks there.

Health

It has beneficial properties for the Santé, in particular on the cardiovascular level, thanks to its content of Vitamine has (3 to 30 mg/kg of Provitamin has Carotène), Vitamine E (150mg/kg) and in monoinsaturés fatty-acids. The benefits related to the Vitamine S are especially observed during cold oil consumption, as in salads, because the Vitamine S are destroyed beyond 40 °C. Compared to the other unsaturated fatty-acids, the olive oil is rather stable with cooking and guard in this case its effects beneficial on the Cholestérol. It is the basic fat contents of the Mediterranean Régime (or Régime crétois) having a favorable effect on the prevention of the cardiovascular affections and the antioxydant capacities of the organization.

The olive oil is used traditionally in the Mediterranean for the care of the skin and the manufacture of ointments or Savon S. the Savon of Alep and the Household soap, which contain olive oil, are examples of employment as well for health as the wellbeing.

The olive-tree is employed as a medicinal Plante, in particular for its sheets which have an effect Diurétique, hypotensor and Vasodilatateur and use the composition of proprietary medical products. As it is also antidiabetic, its indication in prevention of the Athérosclérose is justified.

The young person-growths of spring sheets are used in Gemmothérapie.

Ornamentation

Its wood, clear yellow, veined, hard, give a beautiful polish, required for turning and the cabinet work.

During millenia, the olive oil was source of light in the Mediterranean oil lamps.

The olive-tree as a decorative tree, in particular the oldest subjects with the tormented port are very required. There exists a true story of love between this tree and the populations of the Mediterranean basin.

Industry and breeding

See also: Oil cakes

Until the 19th century the illuminating olive oil was largely used to soften fabrics and to lubricate textile fibers in the spinning mills, like like one of the natural lubricant most powerful for mechanics, because it has excellent a viscosity, is not-siccative, only evaporates very slowly and does not transform itself quickly into a residue gommeux and sticking.

This production of oil for industry currently negligible (50 000 tons in 1999, is 2% of the worldwide production of olive oil) and is concentrated in Syria, Tunisia and Turkey. It is used on the spot and is practically not exported (6 000 tons exported in 1999).

There exists in Italy and Spain of the factories producing of electricity by using like fuel the olive residue, which is the solid residues resulting from the manufacture of the olive oil.

The Grignons can also be used with the animal feed, or the production of sulphurous oil, thus reducing the pollution of the medium.

Culture

Climate

As the olive-tree cannot resist a temperature lower than -10°C, this isothermal delimits its zone of culture in latitude (in general 25°-45°) and altitude. The olive-tree resists up to -8 -10°C in winter vegetative rest, but to 0 with -1°C, the damage can be very important on flowering. Nevertheless, one marked winter is necessary for him to induce the production of flowers and thus of olives.

The olive-tree is a very rustic tree, which is indifferent to the nature of the ground but demanding in light, fears moisture, but supports exceptional drynesses on the other hand and does not suffer in a way exaggerated of the strong winds. However, with 35-38°C, the vegetative growth stops and with 40°C and more, of the burns damage the foliaceous apparatus and can make fall the fruits, especially if the irrigation is insufficient. The hot winds during flowering, the fogs and the strong hygroscopies, hail and the late frosts are as many unfavourable factors to flowering and fructification.

Subspecies and varieties

There thus exist currently two large populations of olive-trees ( Olea europaea subsp. europaea ): the wild populations, which have a great genetic diversity, and population made up of the cultivated varieties, whose polymorphism is much weaker, although the number of individuals is very important.

Although the term conforms for the cultivated trees is Cultivar, the great majority of the documents treating of the olive-tree speaks about “varieties”. It is besides that certain varieties, like Galega in Portugal, have a heterogeneity still today corresponding to the true botanical direction of the word varieties. There is currently more than 2000 varieties of olive-tree listed in the world and each country privileges some cultivars.

The varieties of olive-tree appeared with domestication when the human ones sought to multiply the trees which gave them the most satisfaction among those that them natural environment presented to them. The new varieties are formed by the sexuée reproduction. A seedling resulting from the germination of a core will have particular and original characteristics, even if it comes from a autofecondation. An olive core coming from a cultivated variety does not give an interesting variety inevitably, and thus does not reach inevitably the row of variety. One finds thus in the old orchards of many olive-trees belonging to no indexed variety. The access to the row of variety of the one of these trees is made only if one multiplies it by vegetative way and that one gives a name to this unit. The creation of new powerful varieties can be organized by judiciously choosing the parents by the control of the Pollinisation, then while following the qualitative and quantitative performances of a great number of descendants.

The whole of the current varieties results from all domestications as well as sexuée reproduction of the olive-tree in a domesticated state, under the selective pressure of the human use. Thus, the most powerful varieties for the production of olives and oil are multiplied, whereas the less powerful varieties are forsaken and forgotten. One can however say that the olive-tree is always in the course of domestication, because certain currently cultivated varieties are " directement" exits of the wild olive-trees, like the Corsican varieties Sabine and Capanacce .

In Italy, for example, one appreciates the cultivars Leccino , Frantoio and Carolea . Many a cultivars is almost autostériles and needs to be planted with another cultivar to give a good harvest. For example, Frantoio and Leccino .

• Aglandau or Verdale de Carpentras or Berruguette , accounts for approximately 20% of the French production out of olive oil, good resistance cold and self-fertilizing, ideal for a consistent oil with the great aromatic richness (dominant artichoke),

• Arbequine , first Catalan variety, very much used in the orchards of high-density thanks to its low strength,
• Barnea is a recent Cultivar developed in Israel. It resists the diseases well and produces an olive heavy crop of table or for oil. Barnea is largely cultivated in Israel, Australia and New Zealand.
• Cailletier or black olive of Nice , is eaten after brine settings of a few months and makes it possible to obtain a particularly soft oil when it tardily is collected, but being able to provide oils to fruity very intense (dominant fresh almond) in the event of early harvest.
• Cayon , one of the principal varieties of the VAr, giving a soft oil, to fruity dominated by flavors of tomato,
• Frantoio and Leccino : These cultivars is the principal ones cultivated in Toscane. Leccino has a light and soft taste whereas Frantoio is fruitier with an after-taste. Because of their gustatory qualities, they are also often cultivated in many other countries.
• Grossane , used for the production of oil and the production of crystallized black olives, pricked with salt or out of brine (the grossane is the only variety authorized for the production in Appellation of controlled origin of black Olives of the valley of Beam-of-Provence)
• Lucques , variety of the Languedoc of a form characteristic while crescent of the moon, excellent to make green olives and oil,
• Olivière , variety of Languedoc-Roussillon, with fruity intense marked by tomato flavors,
• Picholine , principal variety of the area of Nimes, used for the production green olives and giving a very fruity, bitter and burning oil,
• Small Ribier , widespread variety of the center VAr in the west of the Alpes-Maritimes, under various denominations, giving a very appreciated oil. Not to confuse with the Large Ribier , not very productive. This name can come from " ribe" , which means edge of terrace,
• Picual , 20% of the worldwide production and 50% of the Spanish production (first Andalusian variety).
• Sabine , one of the principal Corsican varieties, very late,
• Salonenque or seedling of Living room , ideal to make green olives, in particular “broken olives of the Valley of Beam-of-Provence” (AOC),
• Tench , variety only known in the area of Nyons, and only variety with being able to be used for the production of olive oil of Nyons in Name of controlled origin.

Multiplication

To plant an olive core and to await the development of the tree a hazardous method because the cores are very resistant and must be split or weakened to be able to germinate. Moreover, to plant a core resulting from a given variety does not give the same variety, even if the flowers having led to this core were fertilized by pollen of this same variety. Certain nursery gardeners, in particular in Italy, plant olive cores, then graft the young seedlings obtained with the desired variety when they have the size of a pencil. That is not advisable in the areas where perhaps intense freezing, because in the event of freezing in fact the understocks set out again and a new operation of grafting is necessary.

In order to preserve the Genotype varieties selected for their qualities and to cultivate olive-trees having exactly identical to the initial Ortet, the olive growers prefer the multiplication by vegetative way (even if changes clonales can however take place) by Bouturage, by grafting, or by " souquet" (piece of stock).

With the base of the adult trees (30 years) are born from small growths which one calls " Sucker s" or " souquets". When they measure more than 5/6 cm in diameter, one can take them, while digging a little under the ground to recover them with at their base a little bark. At the beginning of spring, after having cut them to 10/12 cm height, they should vertically be planted (attached to a tutor) in a well drained pot and a substrate of Bouturage, just a little humidified, so that can develop the roots, then to sprinkle them only once copiously. The pot must be selected with at the bottom a broad opening for the easy evacuation of water, and a good layer of drainage (expanded balls, shards of pot), not of acid compost, rather of limestone. To plant the pot in seedbed. After at least two years, to replant in open ground without the pot, if possible on the same piece as that of the taking away because its “variety” adapted to its environment. To sprinkle only once (or two in the event of dryness).

Maintenance