The term Indian North-Amerindians , or of North America , designates the first occupants of the unintermitting of North America, and their descendants.

In absence of name which makes consensus, one uses sometimes the expressions of “first nations” or “first people”. The expression “Skins red” is old and is never used with the the United States. In English, with the Canada as with the the United States, one uses the expressions Native Americans (American of origin), Native peoples (people of origin), American Indians , First Nations or Aboriginal Peoples (indigenous people). However, these terms are often rejected by the interested parties who prefer being called according to the names of their nations. In French, especially with the Quebec, the term Amerindian is current, whereas in France one more frequently meets " Indians of Amérique". This term is at the same time current and erudite. The other term running to Quebec east " Indigenous " , which includes at the same time the Inuit called [[Eskimo] X] and the Amerindians. Politically, the autochtones of Quebec are gathered in the Association of the first nations of Quebec and Labrador, whose current chief is Ghislain Picard.

  • See the detailed article Amerindian in the Amerindian United States
  • See the detailed article in Canada
  • See the detailed article Amerindian in Quebec

North-Amerindian companies

Original settlement: Theories old and discovered most recent
See the principal article: Amerindian

Languages

The ethnolinguists estimate the number of Amerindian, dead and always existing languages confused, at 1000 or 2000, including 200 only in North America. Although some comprise major differences compared to others, the specialists could gather them in “families” not having sometimes known any contact. The Langues eskimo-aléoutes include/understand the Inuktun or the Inupiaq. The family of the Langues athapascanes includes/understands dialects practiced by the Apaches and the Navajos. During the Second world war, the American secret services employed auxiliaries navajos which translated in their language the most confidential messages before they are encrypted.

Lastly, the European languages named by using their own vocabularies of the elements of the Amerindian culture, which introduces confusions: Spanish thus baptized the Indians pueblos who means village, but the pueblos belong to four different linguistic groups: Hopi, Zuñi, Keres and Tanoar. The anglophone colonists used name " Indian Corn" to indicate the " Corn " , like the French-speaking colonists, name " corn of Inde".

Beliefs

One generally gathers the Amerindian cultures in great geographical units: the North-East, the North-West (artic region, sub-Arctic area, the North-West (State of Washington), California, Large Basin, Plates, Large Plains, South-east, South-west, forests of the East. The living conditions were thus very different according to the medium from life of the Amerindians. The diversity of the Amerindian people is also expressed in the field of the beliefs. One can nevertheless release some common points with the many Amerindian tribes:
  • creative God called " The " Great mind; (Manitoban for the iroquois) to which many Amerindians, the plains in particular, give the name of Wacontanka and associate " Eïtineka" goddess mother and feeder.
  • Of the " Auxiliaires" spirits; goods or bad (for example: spirits of the wind, fire, the thunder, or the Large Snake, enemies of the good in the culture iroquoise).
  • the Indians of America were animists. Offerings with the ground-mother.
  • the Shamanism: ritual practices of appeasing of the spirits like the dance of the snake at Apaches or the company of the " False Faces" at Iroquois, these practices could at certain cultures (Flat, Bassin, Western South) be accompanied by the use of protective amulets.
  • symbolism: many Amerindians (North is, Plaines, Bassin, the Sub-Arctic, the Arctic) believed an animal filiation. This filiation could be at the origin of the constitution of a clan (Iroquoiiens, Algonquiens). The formation of warlike companies (" warriors chiens" Sioux or Cheyennes). In the same way, this " Filiation" " could sometimes be; Archivée" (totems, specificity of Western North, Noutkas Tlingit, etc). Generally, this symbiosis animal man/is a constant of the Amerindian myths, with the example of the legends inuits which give a report on the animal man/as being single changing at will.

The Amerindians also shared common rites:

  • Rites of purification for the prayers and the ceremonies: use of the tobacco and the sage
  • Prayers and fright in circles
  • Pow wow (in the tribes of the plains)
  • Dance of the Spirits ( The Ghost Dance ): the participants repeat verses with the sound of the drums. The incantations can lead to the Transe. (this dance spread during the years 1880 in the reserves of the plains. She was considered to be subversive by Washington which made it prohibit and is one of the causes of the massacre of " Wounded Knee" in 1890)
  • Dance of the Sun ( The Sun Dance ) in the Large Plains to venerate the sun, for the period of the summer solstice. It was accompanied by voluntary body mutilations intended to show its courage and to enter in fright.

Daily life

Reconstitutions of an Amerindian camp, according to the archaeological data of the Savannah To rivet (Georgia and South Carolina)

Living in symbiosis with their natural environment, the Amerindians depend indeed on the climatic conditions and the resources, even if they knew to adapt to the constraints. Each great unit thus developed an activity of predilection, with its clean Savoir-faire. In the areas the Arctic and the sub-Arctic, it was about the fishing. In the North-West (State of Washington) this one aimed in particular the Cétacé S, the seals, and the Morue. The work of the wood of Thuja (totem S, masks), of basket making and weaving also were very developed. The Grand Basin is characterized by the hunting and the organization of true villages, even of cities and Hutte S.

In the Large Plains, it is the bison which is driven out and the horse drawn up following its introduction by Europeans. In California, one finds an art decorative containing decorations in feathers and shells.

In South-east, tropical cultures of Corn and Potato are made with large scales. They are large the civilizations précolombiennes which set up of such organizations radically different from the wandering model of life and harmonizes some with the Nature, developed by the tribes of North America studied higher.

Finally in South-west, confluence of these two civilizations, one finds people sedentary influenced as well by their neighbors of the upper part of the continent as by those of the lower part. Thus they practice the Irrigation, weave the Coton, make potteries, braid baskets, exploit the Cactus Peyotl, carry jewels and live in constructions in adobe. However the Apaches are wandering and thus live much more hunting.

Disappeared cultures

The oldest sites of the United States are divided into two principal areas: the first is that of the east, where one finds testimonys very old of the culture of the Mound Builders which built hillocks zoomorphes and ground pyramids to bury their deaths. The archeologists baptized these people now extinguished: the Adenas are oldest (- 1000/+), then come the Hopewell S or Hopewellien S. the cultures of the Mississippi are also attached to Mound Builders.

South-west is the second area which sheltered the civilizations disappeared at the time when Christophe Colomb " découvre" America: the archeological sites most known are the Site of Clovis, Danger Undermines (Utah) or Folsom (New Mexico). But of many sites of Pétroglyphes are also located in the American West: Red Rock'n'roll Canyon (Nevada), Bryce Canyon… In this area marked by the aridity and the contacts with the Mesoamerica lives the Indians Pueblos who are the heirs to disappeared cultures:

In the North-East, in the valley of the St. Lawrence, Laurentiens (of Iroquoiens) disappear between the last voyage from Jacques Cartier and the arrival from Samuel de Champlain. In the one half-century space, Stadaconé, Hochelaga and all the villages mentioned by Cartier disappeared. It is generally allowed that their disappearance was not caused by epidemics from Europe. It is extremely probable that, under the pressure of attacks coming from other people, the inhabitants of the St. Lawrence dispersed to join the Huron ones, Iroquois (5 Nations) and some bands algonquines. The tradition wendat gives a report on this fact. It would seem, that around the years 1550, Algonquins, Montagnais and the Huron ones gathered within a " Laurentienne" alliance; made the war and expelled very brutally their enemies iroquois (Desrosiers " Iroquoisie"). The latter will keep in memory this expulsion and will show great cruelty at the time of the combat which they will carry out during nearly 200 years against these tribes… To follow…

White Amerindians and Men

The microbial and viral shock

According to the historian Russel Thorntorn, North America counted approximately 7 million inhabitants about 1500. For example, the population of the Huron S is evaluated with 30.000 individuals at the beginning of the 17th century and fall to 9.000 about 1640. The first cause of the mortality of the Amerindians is the introduction of new diseases by Europeans. The populations autochtones were not immunized against the plague, the Variole, the influenza or chicken pox. " The other causes of depopulation (wars, alcohol, etc), without being unimportant, are completely secondaires" .

Wars in the United States

For the complete chronology of the “Indian wars”, consult the detailed article Indian Guerres .

The Amerindian tribes were made the war: at the beginning of the XVIIe century, the French colonizers take share with the attacks of Algonquins and Huron against their enemies iroquois. The latter retort in the middle of the 17th century and end up weakening the confederation of the Huron ones. Certain prisoners were adopted (they became Iroquois) others were tortured (the nails were torn off to them) or were struck with blows of stick. The warriors ate the bodies of overcome or kept the scalp S in trophies.

  • weapons: before the arrival of Europeans, the Indians did not lay out that of rudimentary weapons: chop, arrows…

The main cause of these conflicts is the expansionist will of the first thirteen American colonies which also results in the wars Mexico City-American Spanish-Americans and , the Conquête of the West by colonists attracted by virgin grounds reinforced animosity between the two people, thus multiplying the number of overflows. These conflicts will be the subject of reprisals on behalf of the two camps, such of the massacres and plunderings. Thus in 1862, the Sioux santees massacre 1500 men, American women and children in the Minnesota.

However the relations between Amerindians and White were not always violent:

  • In 1620, the colonists of the Mayflower are saved famine by the chief Massasoit. It is the origin of Thanksgiving.
  • the Amerindian young person Pocahontas wife the English John Rolfe in 1613.
  • the Quaker S and William PEN in Pennsylvania had friendly relations with the Amerindians, according to the principles of equality and peace.
  • In 1805, the Lewis Forwarding and Clark which leaves Saint-Louis to join the Pacific, was often helped by Amerindian tribes.
  • the Supreme court of the United States often defended the rights of the Amerindians to the XIXe century.
  • Several American figures supported the Amerindian cause, following the example Thomas Paine or Roger Williams.
  • to note that in fact the Spanish reintroduced the Cheval on the continent. As of the 17th century, this one had been spread on all the territory and the Indians of North America very quickly adopted it in their lifestyle.

Deportation of the Indians of America

At the 19th century, the Indians of North America were parked in reserve S and their principal game disappears, the bisons being exterminated for their fur under the incentives of the federal government. Thus even if the qualification of Génocide of the treatment of these populations is discussed, insofar as there were no governmental will stopped exterminating the Amerindians, the latter famished (premium with the massacre of Bison S), were despoiled their grounds by the violence and cheating (not respect of the agreements signed) and deprived of their freedom of worship as well as right to speak their languages. This policy is frequently named ethnocide, term indicating the extermination of a culture. Juridically the not existing term of ethnocide, the destruction of an ethnos group concerns the genocide, according to the “Convention for the prevention and the repression of the crime of genocide” adopted unanimously by General meeting of the United Nations in 1948.

In 1830, the Indian Removal Act inaugurates the policy of displacement of the Amerindian populations always more towards the West: the president of the time, Andrew Jackson, makes vote a law off-setting the Amerindians living in the East of the the Mississippi in the West of this river, mainly in Oklahoma, in order to exploit the Or located on their territories, in the Ohio and to install the migrants from Europe. This law is declared anticonstitutional by the Supreme court and involves wars with Cherokees until 1838. Until 1850,100 000 Amerindians are off-set. The episode the most famous remainder that of the Track of the tears in 1838-1839. This name comes from the tears of compassion poured by the Americans who saw passing Cherokees in front of them. This forced deportation made at least 4  000 victims, because of the cold and exhaustion.

Amerindian rebirth at the 20th century

In 1896, one could count 250.000 Amerindians living in the United States.
1924 : American citizenship granted to the Amerindians
1968: birth of the Amerindian movement ( American Indian Movement ) with Mineapolis
1969: Amerindian occupation of Alcatraz to San Francisco
1973: occupation symbolic system of Wounded Knee
1978: American Indian Religion Freedom Act : guarantee of freedom of worship for the Indians of America
1988: They obtain the right to establish in their reserves of the establishments of play (provided that the laws of the States do not prohibit the pastime)
2005: The Amerindian community holds nearly 400 casinos in 28 States for incomes, estimated by the National Indian Gaming Commission , to 22,6 billion dollars in 2005 and diversified its economy.


The Amerindian heritage in the culture states-unienne

The census of 2000 counted 2,5 million Amerindians in the United States. In the years 1960, under the influence of the Red Power , there is redécouvert the heritage and the civilization of the Amerindians. Thus in California, the Native American Day (4th Monday of September) is the occasion to pay homage to the Amerindians of the state, the teachers are invited to speak about the Amerindian culture in the schools.

To reconstitute the history of the Amerindian people is relatively difficult for the most moved back periods. Without writing, the Amerindians transformed little their medium and left few old traces. Nevertheless, the Amerindian culture influenced the toponyms: several federate states bear a name of Amerindian origin (Ohio, Michigan, Idaho, etc). Many rivers (the Mississippi) and elements of physical geography were drawn from the language of the Amerindians.

The Amerindians also learned with the White the culture from plants which were then a great success: Tomato, Potato, Corn and Tobacco. Finally certain English words point out their Amerindian origins ( anorak , moccassin , canoe , toboggan , etc).
For more information, to see the detailed article: French Words of Amerindian origin.

For a few years, the United States has rehabilitated the Amerindian heritage: with New York, the National Museum off the American Indian (National museum of the Indians of America) shelters approximately a million objects of the origins to today. Another part of the collections is with Washington in a building drawn by Douglas J. Cardinal and opened the September 21st 2004. It is about an institution which had been created following a law voted by the American Congrès in 1989.

The Amerindians themselves revive their ancestral traditions (craft industry, Pow wow). A part still knows the problems of poverty and alcoholism. The Arapahos and the Séminoles in other launched out in the games of chance and the industry of the casino S. Some have their own casino; one will quote particularly the Arapaho Casino located in the Wyoming.

Lists of the tribes of North America

  • List by geographical surfaces.
  • alphabetical List of tribes and important characters.
The most known people are:

Quotations

  • “the United States managed to exterminate the Indian race without violating only one principle of morals to the eyes of the world. ”, Alexis de Tocqueville, 1850.

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