Napoleonean wars

The Napoleonean wars are the series of wars which took place in Europe when Napoleon directed the France.

They are partly the prolongation of the wars generated by the French revolution, and lasted throughout the First Empire. There does not exist consensus on their starting point. Some consider that they start when the Bonaparte general seizes the power, in November 1799. Others prolong the Guerres of the French revolution until 1802, and estimate that the declaration of war between the France and the the United Kingdom in 1803, after the short period of peace which follows the Traité of Amiens (1802), is the starting point of the Napoleonean wars. They are completed on November 20th, 1815, after the defeat of Napoleon with Waterloo and with the second treaty of Paris.

These wars revolutionize the European armies and in particular the use of the Artillerie, like all the military organization, on a scale ever seen before, which had mainly with the modern introduction of the Conscription of mass. France, on the dash of the revolutionary conquests, sees its power growing quickly and extends its domination to the whole continent. The fall is faster still, of disastrous the retirement of Russia to the battle of Waterloo, until the Dynastie of the Bourbons is restored in France. The whole of all these conflicts made a total of surroundings 2,5 million deaths, 1,5 million soldiers and 1 million civilians (low estimates).

Denomination

They are called also wars of the Revolution and the Empire , if it is considered that it is primarily about the continuation of the wars of defense of the French revolution, attacked by united European monarchies. Nevertheless, some took a character of war of occupation and undeniable conquest, such as the Guerre of Spain.

Europeans name sometimes the period of war continual ranging between on April 20th, 1792 (Declaration of war of France in Austria) and on November 20th, 1815 the French Great War (before the quite simply First World War, one called it the Great War ).

Lastly, it is considered sometimes that they form the last part of the Third war One hundred Year old Franco-British.

War of the second coalition

See also: Wars of the French revolution, Second coalition, War of the second coalition, Countryside of Italy (1796-1797)

After a first attempt to crush the French revolution by a coalition (1792 - 1797) (which gathers the Austria, the Prussia, the Spain, the Great Britain and several small countries), coalition overcome by the French general mobilization (Levy in masse, military reform of Lazare Carnot and All-out war), victorious France had annexed the the Rhineland and the Spanish Netherlands. The conquest of the United Provinces (which declare the war in France in 1793) and their transformation into Batavian République (Traité $the Hague, January 19th 1795), had preceded the abandonment by Prussia, then of Spain, the same year. Lastly, the victorious countryside of Bonaparte in Italy (1796-97) first of all detaches the Piedmont of the coalition, then the Papal States, and finally obliges Austria to sign the Traité of Campo-Formio.

Great Britain, last power still in war against France, finances a Second coalition with Austria, Prussia, the Russia, the Portugal, the Royaume of Naples, the pope and the Ottoman Empire. The corrupted and unstable government of France (see Directory) can neither face the coups d'etat, nor with the threat external, private of minister like Carnot or general like Bonaparte, left in Egypt. The French Armies are beaten, in particular by the Russian general Souvorov.

Napoleon Bonaparte leaves Egypt, where it leaves the control of the army with Kléber, and seizes the power by the Coup d'etat of the 18 brumaire (November 9th 1799). The most pressing threat is then the double Austrian offensive in Germany and Italy. The first Consul organizes an army known as “of reserve”, with which it crosses the Alps and gains on June 18th, 1800 the Bataille Marengo, supplemented on December 3rd by the victory of Moreau over the Austrians with Hohenlinden. Peace is then signed with the Traité of Lunéville and only in war against France Great Britain remains, whose fleet is queen of the seas, after a victory against a Franco-Spanish squadron with the course Saint-Vincent, then the destruction of the French fleet with Aboukir (1798). She threatens the French West Indies, and its funds are enough to link the continental powers against France. In the same way, the Austrian army, in spite of the many defeats, continues to be a threat.

The Peace of Amiens

The Traité of Amiens (1802) establishes peace between France and the United Kingdom (Great Britain is plain in 1801 in Ireland to become the United Kingdom), and puts an end to the second coalition. This peace is regarded as durable, none of the two parts not being satisfied. May 18th, 1803, the hostilities begin again, but the object of the conflict passes from the re-establishment of monarchy to France to the fight against Bonaparte, which proclaims emperor on May 28th, 1804 and crowns the December 2nd.

Maritime war

This one continues without interruption: the Denmark and the Norway, initially neutrals, grow rich in the trade thanks to the war, and set up a fleet. After a show of force (bombardment of Copenhagen in 1801), the British fleet captures most of the Danish fleet at the time of the Second battle of Copenhagen (1807). The Denmark leaves its neutrality then, and devotes to a war race, where small drain-holes do not hesitate to attack British ships good larger. The War of the drain-holes ends with the British victory with Lyngor, where the last Danish warship runs, a frigate.

During the resumption of the hostilities, in 1805, the the United Kingdom makes sure the control of the seas by its crushing victory over the Franco-Spanish fleet with Trafalgar (October 21st 1805). A French forwarding in Ireland is easily pushed back.

The naval actions continue however. A naval confrontation with the the Caribbean has a direct and immediate effect on the course of the war, since it pushes Napoleon to be turned to the continent. The influence of confrontation very distant from/to each other is a characteristic of these wars: battles delivered to thousands of kilometers influence the result from/to each other, at the point where one can qualify the Napoleonean wars of world war. Only the Guerre Seven Year old had this character of world war before.

War of the third coalition

War of the fourth coalition

See also: Fourth coalition, War of the fourth coalition

The fourth coalition is formed a few months only after the disappearance of the preceding one. In July 1806, the Emperor of the French creates the Confédération of the Rhine, which gathers the small Rhenish States and of Germany. Smallest are integrated into the Électorats, the duchies or the larger kingdoms, which facilitates the government of Germany not-Prussian. The greatest States are the Bavaria and the Saxony, set up in kingdoms by Napoleon.

Prussia does not accept that French supremacy extends to its doors and on August 9th, the king Frederic-Guillaume III, pushed by the United Kingdom, issues the mobilization in order to make the war only in France. Logic would have liked that it enters in war with Austria and Russia the previous year, which could have contained Napoleon and prevent the disaster of Austerlitz. At the time of the entry in war of Frederic-Guillaume, the Russian army was still far from Prussia.

In September, Napoleon concentrates his army on the Rhine, then advances towards Prussia with approximately 160 000 men (starting manpower, increasing during the countryside). The fast forward movement of the French Army is such as it makes it possible to destroy the Prussian army, cash 250 000 men. Indeed, Napoleon and his marshal Davout put it in rout at the time of the battles of Iéna and Auerstadt on October 14th, 1806. 25 is counted; 000 died in the Prussian rows; 150 000 Prussian soldiers are made prisoners; 100 000 rifles and 4000 guns are taken and piled up in Berlin.

The 27, Napoleon makes his entry with Berlin with the head of the Large army. He visits the tomb of Frederic Large the, and in front of its marshals which he makes be discovered, pronounces these words: “If it were still alive, we would not be there today. ” On the whole, Napoleon spent only 19 days of the beginning of his attack on Prussia in his entry in Berlin. In comparison, Prussia fought during three years during the war of the first coalition. After these reverses, Prussia signs an armistice with Charlottenbourg.

In Berlin, Napoleon promulgates a series of decrees, come into effect on November 1st, 1806, making effective the continental Blocus, which aims at eliminating the British threat by economic means, by prohibiting any trade with the British in all the countries under French influence. The British army was too reduced to threaten France (a maximum of 220 000 men with most extremely of the Napoleonean wars), vis-a-vis the Large army which exceeds at one time the million men, by counting the allied armies and the national guards. The British fleet obstructs the French maritime trade on the other hand, but cannot anything against the continental French trade, and does not threaten the French territory. In the same way, the population and the production (industrial, agricultural) French were quite higher than the British; however, the maritime domination of the British gives them a considerable, sufficient economic power to return impossible to France any solid peace, and to be able to raise a coalition against it constantly. It is also the United Kingdom which equips the united armies. The French governments believed that to isolate the United Kingdom from the continent its economic influence would decrease. It is the justification of the continental Blockade.

The war leads to the re-creation of a Polish State. Napoleon moves towards north to face the Russian army and to try to take the new capital of king de Prusse, Königsberg. A tactical movement at the time of bloody the Battle of Eylau (February 7th and 8th 1807) constrained Russians with a retirement. After the catch of Dantzig, Napoleon gains a decisive victory with Friedland, the June 14th. This defeat pushes the tsar to sign the Traité of Tilsit, on July 7th. Extremely new territories taken in Prussia, Napoleon makes reappear the Poland by creating the Grand-duché of Warsaw.

With the congress of Erfurt (1808), Napoleon and Alexandre Ier conclude an agreement, according to which Russia will oblige the Sweden to adhere to the continental Blockade. This promise led to the War of Finland, and to the division of Sweden into two by the Gulf of Bothnia. The oriental party is annexed by Russia, and forms the Grand-duché of Finland.

War of the fifth coalition

See also: Fifth coalition, War of the fifth coalition, War of Spain (Empire)

War of Spain

Popular rising against the French occupation the May 2nd 1808 causes a war in Spain, which ends in 1814 in the expulsion of Spain of the king Joseph Bonaparte, replaced by the king Ferdinand VII, and with the invasion of the south of France.

The French Army is beaten with the Bataille of Baylen. Napoleon moves then, beats the Hispano-British easily, and the British task force leaves the peninsula. An Austrian attack with reverse surprises Napoleon at this time. That obliges it to give up the Iberian peninsula, and explains why it never returned there. Into its absence, and as it does not send its best officers to it (Davout remains permanently in the East), the situation changes, in particular when the British general Arthur Wellesley, future duke of Wellington, is named with the head of the British army in the peninsula.

The fifth coalition

It is formed in 1809 by the United Kingdom and Austria, whereas the first fought already against France in the Iberian peninsula. The United Kingdom had again found itself only against France, partly because it had never engaged of important forces in a conflict with Napoleon, contrary to the continental powers. The British military activity is reduced then to small victories in the French colonies, and of the naval victories. With ground, it tries only in 1809 disastrous the Expédition of Walcheren. The confrontation moves on the economic ground: continental blockade against naval blockade, that the two respective enemies try to reinforce: British as a combatant the United States (War of 1812) and French while guerroyant in Spain. The conflict in the Iberian peninsula starts when the Portugal continues to trade with the the United Kingdom in spite of French prohibitions. When the French are beaten with Baylen, battles which shows that an important part of the Spanish people did not want to maintain her alliance with France, the French troops must occupy the country gradually, enter Madrid again, which causes the British intervention.

Austria, then allied of France, foresees opportunity of finding its old Empire on Germany, removed after Austerlitz. It gains some successes against the weak forces of Davout. Napoleon had left him only 170 000 men to defend the Eastern border of France, whereas in the years 1790, it is an army of 800 000 men who defended the French borders, on a shorter face. Austria also attacks the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but is overcome with the battles of Raszyn (April 19th 1809). The Polish army conquers the Western Galicia.

Napoleon takes the command of the army and directs the counter-attack to Austria. A series of small victories precede enormous the Bataille by Essling, first tactical defeat of Napoleon. But the Charles archduke, commander-in-chief Austrian, makes the error not to continue the French troops, which would have consolidated its success. Consequently, Napoleon prepares the head office of Vienna, which begins in July. He overcomes then the Austrians with Wagram (July 5th and July 6th 1809). It is during this battle that the Bernadotte marshal is dislocated of his title and ridiculed by Napoleon in front of the staff. The crown of Sweden is then offered to Bernadotte, which it accepts by thus betraying Napoleon. Thereafter, the Swedish army fights the former Emperor of Bernadotte.

The war of fifth coalition is completed by the Traité of Schönbrunn, on October 14th, 1809.

In 1810, the French Empire reaches its maximum extension. Napoleon marries Marie-Louise, archduchess of Austria, in order to establish a durable alliance with Austria and to have finally a heir, that his first wife, Joséphine de Beauharnais, had not been able to give him. In addition to the Empire, Napoleon is king d' Italie, mediator (and directing) of the Swiss Confédération, of the Confédération of the Rhine, his ambassador in Warsaw directs semi-officially the Grand Duchy. Its allies are the Spain (Joseph Bonaparte), the Westphalia (Jerome Bonaparte), the Royaume of Naples (Joachim Murat), the principality of Lucques and Piombino (Felix Baciocchi, husband of his sister Élise), and its former enemies, Prussia and Austria.

War of the sixth coalition

See also: Sixth coalition, War of the sixth coalition, Countryside of Russia

The sixth coalition gathers the United Kingdom, Russia, Prussia, to which unite progressively French difficulties, Sweden, Austria and the majority of the small German States.

Countryside of Russia

In 1812, Napoleon invades Russia to oblige the tsar to maintain the Blockade continental and to move away the threat from an invasion of Poland by Russia. The Large army (650 000 men of which 270 000 French) cross the Niémen on June 23rd, 1812. Russia proclaims the patriotic Great War whereas Napoleon had proclaimed the second Polish war. But, contrary to waitings of the Poles, who provide almost 100 000 men, Napoleon avoids making concessions in Poland, pushing back them with the negotiations with Russia. Either voluntarily, or by fear to face on the Napoleon battle field, the Russians move back and practice the scorched earth policy, until the Bataille of Moskowa, on September 7th. This bloody battle forces the Russians to withdraw themselves, and Moscow is taken and put at bag on September 14th. Alexandre Ier refuses to negotiate, and Napoleon, without hope of decisive victory, is forced to make retirement and to give up Moscow, when his governor, prince Rostopchine, the fire. With the Retirement of Russia, the Large army loses 370 000 dead (by counting the losses at the time of the battles) and 200 000 prisoners. In November, only 90.000 men cross the Bérézina. Napoleon must moreover give up his army to go back to Paris, where the general Malet tried a Coup d'etat, and to prepare the defense of Poland. The situation of the Emperor is then not so critical that it appears to with it. The Russians had lost 400 000 men, and their army was also exhausted. But their lines of supply were shorter, and they could renew their manpower more quickly than France.

In same time, in Spain, the victory of the Hispano-British ordered by Wellesley with the Bataille of Vitoria (June 21st, 1813) puts an end to the French occupation of the peninsula, and the French Army and Joseph Bonaparte pass by again the Pyrenees.

Countryside of Germany

Prussia sees an occasion in these histories defeats of the French Army, and returns in war. Napoleon reconstitutes an army by reinforcing his troops survivors, which pass from 30 000 with 130 000 men (and will reach 400 000 men). He causes high losses (40 000 dead) with its adversaries with the battles of Lützen (May 2nd) and with that of Bautzen (May 20th and 21st), without gaining decisive victory. More 250 000 men clash in these battles, which places them among the greatest battles of the military history.

An armistice is signed on June 4th, and the truce lasts until August 13rd. Each camp seeks to be reinforced, and united manage to convince Austria to again face Napoleon. It forms two armies of approximately 800 000 men, plus a strategic reserve of 350 000 men to support the operations of border. Of dimensioned sound, Napoleon joins together approximately 650 000 men in Germany, of which only 250 000 pennies its direct orders (120 000 ordered by Oudinot, and 30 000 by Davout). The Confederation of the Rhine equips the large one with the remaining forces, Saxony and Bavaria being the main allies. In Italy, the Kingdom of Naples of Murat and the Royaume of Italy of Eugene de Beauharnais have a combined army of approximately 100 000 men. Lastly, between 150 000 and 200 000 soldiers make retirement of Spain, continued by the troops hispano-British (approximately 150 000 men). On the whole, 900 000 French soldiers are opposite on all fronts to approximately a million united soldiers (without counting strategic reserves). Moreover, the German soldiers of the French forces are not very reliable, and tend to desert to join the allied troops. It is thus reasonable to estimate that Napoleon could count only on 450 000 men in Germany, and which it was thus subjected to a power struggle unfavourable of two against one.

At the end of the truce, Napoleon takes again the initiative and overcomes with Dresden numerically higher allied forces, inflicting strong losses to them, and with weak losses on his side. However, of bad judgments of its marshals and a lack of insurance in the remainder of the offensive France the advantage acquired at the time of this battle costs. With the Battle of Leipzig, known as Battle of the Nations (from October 16th to 19th 1813), 191 000 French deal with 450 000 allied soldiers. Napoleon is beaten, and constrained to make retirement.

Countryside of France

It is the invasion of France by a united army of 500 000 soldiers. The united monarchs want to put an end to twenty years of war, the Revolution and to kill Napoleon, whom they call the Usurpateur . Napoleon can oppose only one small army of 70 to them; 000 men. Within this army of the last chance, the imperial Guard, partly made up of conscripts, defends with heroism each inch of ground. “Triumph of the will on the number” (according to the marshal June), the countryside of France is the occasion for Napoleon to show his genius, while succeeding with this army reduced to beat its divided enemies successively, in particular at the time of the battles of Champaubert, Montmirail, Mormant and Montereau. In spite of these victories, the Allies sign the Traité of Chaumont (March 9th), promising to remain plain until the total defeat of Napoleon. 6000 French combatants were killed, wounded or made captive during this last countryside, without succeeding in preventing the Allies from entering to Paris on March 30th, delivered by its governor Marmont. Without considering the defeat, Napoleon had calculated that it could receive 900 000 men in reinforcement, between new recruits and troops in garrison in Germany, Belgium and Holland. These plans could not be carried out, these reinforcements not having been able to be mobilized in time. Napoleon abdicates on April 6th with Fontainebleau, and the Congrès of Vienna begins on October 1st.

War of the seventh coalition

The seventh coalition gathers the United Kingdom, Russia, Prussia, Sweden, Austria, the Netherlands and of many German States against France.

This period known under the name of Hundred Days starts when Napoleon escapes from the isle of Elba and unloads in Golfe Juan, on March 1st 1815. During the Vol of the Eagle , it borrows initially what became the Route Napoleon in the Alps, rejoins with him the troops which one sends to stop it, and arrives at Paris given up by Louis XVIII. The Allies declare it outlaw, and gather in haste an army. Napoleon has 280 000 men divided into several armies. Before its return, France had an army of 90 000 men (a legion by department), to which it joins together 250 000 veterans. It promulgates a decree to mobilize 2,5 million men.

The allies have 700 immediately; 000 soldiers available, and envisage to be reinforced with height of a million men, supported by 200 000 men of garrison in the fortified towns.

Napoleon leads an army of 124 000 men in a preventive attack in Belgium, in order to attack the allied armies before they gather, while hoping to push back the British with the sea and to force the Prussians to withdraw coalition. Its fast walk gives him the desired effect of surprise. It forces the Prussians with the combat with the Bataille of Ligny (June 16th), where they are beaten and are withdrawn in disorder. The same day, Ney stops the British troops sent by Wellington to support Blücher, with the Bataille of Four-Arm. Ney cannot however release the French positions, and Wellington is forced with the retirement only by the Prussian retreat. It gathers its troops on a position which it had before recognized the Midsummer's Day mount, with a few km of the town of Waterloo. Napoleon then carries his reserves towards north, and joined Ney to continue Wellington, while asking Grouchy to keep his line and to prevent the Prussians from reorganizing. He does not fulfill this mission, and although he beats von Thielman with the Bataille of Wavre (June 18th and 19th), the large one of the Prussian army walk with the sound of the gun of Waterloo.

At the beginning of the Battle of Waterloo, the June 18th 1815, Napoleon wait a long time before starting the combat, until the ground is dried by the sun. At the end of the day, the French Army could not dislodge Britannico-Hanovriens of their positions. When the Prussians arrive and attack the French right wing, the strategy of the Emperor to maintain divided united is put in failure, and its army must make retirement in the most total confusion. After its victory with Wavre, Grouchy returns in order towards Paris, where Davout holds lends an army of 117 000 men, to face the 116 000 Prusso-British. Even if militarily, Napoleon could have planned to continue the fight, his fall is precipitated by a political impossibility to be maintained with the capacity.

Arrived at Paris three days after Waterloo, Napoleon abdicates one second time on June 22nd, 1815, and the Allies exile it on the rock isolated from Grey waxbill.

Political consequences

The Napoleonean wars had great consequences in the whole world, mainly in Europe:

France is not any more the dominant power in Europe, as it was it under Louis XIV;
In many European countries, the importation of the ideals and progress of the French revolution (Democracy, contradictory and equitable lawsuits, abolition of the privileges, Torture, equality in front of the law) leaves a durable print. Even if the Napoleonean kingdoms were authoritative, they were it less than those which had preceded them (and even less hard than the mode of the Terreur). The European monarchs have great difficulties with of restoring the absolutism pre-revolutionist, and are often obliged to maintain certain reforms introduced by the occupation (like the Civil code French Napoleonean, remained of use in some areas very a long time, or having influenced many national codes). Many removed institutions never were recreated (Germanic Roman Holy roman Empire), others created by Napoleon last still nowadays;
new and powerful movement is born in the wake from the Napoleonean armies: the Nationalism. It will be essential and change the course of the history of Europe. It is the force which pushes with the birth of the European nations, and at the end of the Empires. The chart of Europe is completely redrawn in the hundred years which follow the Napoleonean wars, either according to the aristocratic, but cultural and ideological standards, of the independence of Greece (1830) to the First World War;
the war of Spain completely destroys the Spanish State, its fleet and its army, situation worsened by the revolt of the American colonies, influenced by the ideals of the French revolution and the United States. In 1825, near total of the Spanish colonial empire in America east either become independent, or annexed by the United States (Florida, Louisiana), the United Kingdom (Trinidad) or Haiti (Santo Domingo);
the United Kingdom becomes the world hegemonic power, on ground as on sea. The occupation of the Netherlands by France enables him to occupy the colonies Dutchwomen, and to preserve those which have a strategic value at the end of the Napoleonean wars (Ceylon, Malacca, South Africa, Guyana).

From another with dimensions, a new concept of Europe as a plain unit emerges. Napoleon mentions several times of sound living his intention to create a single State in Europe, and in spite of its destruction, the Internationalisme re-appears one century and half later, when reappears a European identity after the Second world war.

Military heritage

The Napoleonean wars completely upset the designs on the art of the war. Before Napoleon, the European States had relatively small armies, with a strong proportion from abroad and Mercenaire S combatant sometimes their country of origin for a foreign power. The military innovations of second half of the 18th century however prepare the concept of nation in war .

Napoleon innovates in the use of mobility to compensate for his numerical inferiority, like it makes of them brilliant demonstrations at the time of the countryside of Italy or the Bataille of Austerlitz. The role of the Artillerie is found considerably increased at the time of the battle, which form from now on units mobile and independent, and more only in support of the other units like before (change prepared at the end of the Old Mode by several reforms). Napoleon Standard ise the Gauge S of guns, in order to facilitate the provisioning and to ensure a better compatibility enters the parts. He can also make use of science, in particular in the improvement of the intendance of the armies. Especially, the control of the war is changed: the sought-after goal is the destruction of the opposing armies (and thus to inflict maximum losses to him during and after the battle, by a continuation of light cavalry).

With the fourth more important population of the world at the end of the 18th century (27 million inhabitants, against twelve 35 and British million to 40 million Russians), France is well placed to practice the levy in masse. The French revolution and Napoleon retained well the concept of the commercial wars and dynastic of the previous century (which they did not invent), and applied them to large scales.

All the merit does not return either to Napoleon. This genius had at its disposal an army worked by Lazare Carnot which plays a fundamental role in its reorganization in 1793-1794, when the fate of France was played, with armies having to face on all fronts.

The increase in the size of the armies also gives an indication on the change in the way of doing the war. At the time of the War Seven Year old, last important war in Europe before the French revolution, few armies exceeded the 200 000 men. In the years 1790, the French Army reaches the 1,5 million conscripts. On the whole, during these twenty-three years of war, nearly 2,8 million French were useful in the 150 and Army, to; 000 on sea.

The United Kingdom mobilizes 750 000 men of 1792 to 1815, of which a third in the Royal Navy. It is more difficult to make the account of the other armies, but in 1812 Russia counts 900 000 men in his Army, therefore had more than one million mobilized men. The Austrian forces reach 576 000 men to the maximum; Austria being the most persistent enemy of France, it is reasonable to think that more than one million Austrians were useful in the army lasting this period. Prussia and the United Kingdom had until 320 000 pennies weapons, Spain approximately 300 000. The Ottoman Empire, the kingdom of Italy, the kingdom of Naples and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw mobilize them also more 100 000 men (at the time, the the United States have 286 000 men under the flags). As one can see it, even small nations had armies competing with those of the great powers of the preceding wars.

Several historians see in the Guerres of the French revolution and the Napoleonean wars some of the first stages of the Industrial revolution. It becomes current to produce weapons in mass and to equip with the troops much more important. The United Kingdom is the principal manufacturer of weapons of this period, because it provides most of the weapons used by the united powers (and itself does not use that a weak part of the weapons which it manufactures). France is the second producer, for his own needs initially, but also to equip the Confederation with the Rhine and others allied.

The war spreads certain technological innovations, like the telegraph Chappe, which makes it possible Carnot to communicate with the French Armies combatant on the borders. This system perdure after 1815. It is during the battles of Fleurus which one uses the first time of the balloons for espionner the enemy positions.

See too

List of the generals of the Revolution and the First Empire
Armed Napoleonean
Large army

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