Nanotechnology

History

Vision of Feynman

In its speech given on December 29th, 1959 to the American company of Physics, Richard Feynman opens the way with a field of research then unexplored: the infinitely small. Feynman considers an aspect of physics " in which few things were done, and in which much remains with faire". Basing itself on the tiny size of the atoms, he regards as feasible writing great quantities of information on very small surfaces: " Why couldn't we write the entirety of the Brittanica Encyclopedia on a pinhead? " … an assertion which created sensation at the time but which today, within sight of progress in microtechnologies, seems to us perfectly realizable. But Feynman wants to go beyond the macroscopic systems in which we live; he imagines a world where the atoms would be handled and one by one arranged of coherent structures of very small size. As a good visionary, he imagines the means which would be implemented to visualize and handle the atoms, of the improvement of the microscopic imagery to the use of the biological systems for the production of nanomachines… the nanotechnologies were born!

The microscope with tunnel effect

As often in science, the development of the NST is based on the invention of two instruments making it possible to observe and interact with the matter on an atomic or subatomic scale. The first is the Microscope with tunnel effect (STM for Scanning Tunneling Microscope) which was invented in 1981 by two researchers of IBM, and which allows to traverse conducting or semiconductor surfaces by using a quantum phenomenon , the Tunnel effect, to determine morphology and the Densité of electronic states of surfaces which it explores. The second is the Microscope with atomic force (AFM for Atomic Force Microscope) which is a derivative of the STM, and which measures the forces of interactions between the point of the microscope and explored surface. This tool allows thus, contrary to the STM, to visualize the materials non-conductors. These instruments combined with the Lithographie make it possible to observe, handle and create nanostructures.

Fullerenes and nanotubes

August 1st

Prophecies of Drexler

In 1986, Eric Drexler publishes a work on the future of the nanotechnologies, Engines off Creation, in which it delivers his vision of possible amazing progress with the rise of the nanotechnologies. Thus the physical laws appearing insurmountable today could be exceeded, the products created could be less expensive, more solid, more effective thanks to molecular handling. But Drexler also envisaged what one could call the other side of the coin, indeed of such technologies able to reproduce or at least to be retorted by themselves could be quite simply cataclysmic since, for example, of the bacteria created in any shared interest could be retorted ad infinitum and cause devastations on the flora but also on fauna and even on humanity. Drexler writes that if the rise of the nanotechnologies, apparently inescapable in the process of evolution, were to bring to us enormously in very wide fields it is also extremely probable which these technologies become destroying if we entirely do not control them.

On this subject, one of the questions which can be posed is the strong penetrating capacity which the nanoparticules with regard to cellular fabrics have. Indeed, because of their size lower than the cells, since these last are with the state of particles, they can in addition to passing certain natural barriers. If a stake would be then the control of this capacity of penetration, this property can also be exploited as it is already the case in cosmetic industry.

Physics of the nanosciences

On a nanometric scale, matter present of the particular properties which can justify a specific approach. They are of course the quantum properties , but also effects of surface, volume, or of effects edge. Indeed in accordance with the laws of the quantum Mécanique, a particle will adopt on the level nanometric an undulatory behavior with the costs of the corpuscular behavior that we know to him at the macroscopic level. This Dualité wave-particle is particularly visible in the experiment of the Fentes of Young. A beam of particles (light, electrons,…) interfere with a series of little spaced slits and creates a figure of interferences, characteristic of an undulatory phenomenon. This Dualité wave-particle of the matter, which to date remains one of the great interrogations of the Physique, will cause various phenomena on the level nanometric, for example

Quantification of électricté: in a wire nanometric, one noticed that the electric current does not consist any more of a continuous flow of electrons but than it is quantified , i.e. the electrons circulate by " paquets" in the circuit.
Quantification of heat: in the same way in a circuit of nanometric size, one observed that heat is propagated in manner quantified .

These phenomena observed in experiments confirm the theories of the quantum Mécanique.

Of course this behavior of the matter obliges us to re-examine our way of thinking: when one wants to describe a particle, one does not speak any more in terms of position in a given time, but rather in terms of probability that the particle is at a place rather than with another.

The major stake of the nanosciences is thus to include/understand these phenomena but more especially to benefit at the time of the design from it of a system nanometric.

The emergence of the nanotechnologies

Behind the effect of advertisement, several studies were undertaken to apprehend the evolution of the nanotechnologies and the nanosciences. Thus, by considering the fact that the definitions are not stabilized, the common component of the various methods used is to measure the activity nanotechnologic under three angles: scientific publications (rather for fundamental knowledge), patents (rather for the technological aspects), and possibly institutions and companies concerned or the funded capital (to measure the economic activity and industrial real). That they are the patents or the scientific publications, the values presented in the tables according to were negligible before the years 1990.

Technological change of 1993 and 2003 in the world

In comparison with the article published in the Nanotechnology nature magazine in 2006, one notes the following evolution for the patents deposited with the European Patent Office (EPO):

If these figures represent a strong evolution, one also notes a relative stability for these two periods. Nevertheless this evolution does not take into account the faster growths (1997-1999) and the reductions (2000-2001).

Evolution of fundamental knowledge between 1989 and 2000 in the world

We will take to characterize the evolution of the scientific publications, an article using a method more including that used in nature nanotechnology and who makes it possible to characterize the evolution of the nanotechnologic publications:

Periods of creations of the companies concerned with the NST

While following a report/ratio emitted by the European commission in connection with the estimate of the economic development of the NST, we can look at the creation dates of companies concerned with this activity.

These figures are based on a particular repertory of companies which seems to underestimate real manpower. They show well a clear acceleration of the companies concerned with the nanotechnologies since the years 1990, but of other sources, more complete, make well estimates with the top of these figures. The NanoVIP site estimated that in 2005 more than 1400 companies were identified as being concerned with the nanotechnologies. More recently, of research make state of a number of companies higher than 6.000 in 2006. This research is based on a method aiming at combining the information sources by adding several markers of the nanotechnologic activity, such as for example the patents. In 2006, starting from these results, the United States accommodates 48% of the companies which invest in the nanotechnologies, whereas Europe (of the 25 and the associated countries) adds up 30% and Asia 20%.

Fundamental disciplines of the NST

The current development of the NST mobilizes and recovers a broad spectrum of fields and scientific disciplines.

Principal scientific fields concerned

Point of seen mobilized scientific knowledge, several under-disciplines are particularly useful for the developments of fundamental knowledge of the NST. Indeed, of the detailed analyzes in the way in which and the scientific articles concerning the nanotechnologies and the nanosciences built are published, show the emergence of three specific under-fields:

biosciences and pharma: around biology, pharmaceutical laboratories and Biotechnologies. This field can be qualified like that of the Nanobiologie.
and chemical synthesis: around chemistry and the nanomatériaux ones. This field can be qualified like that of the nanomatériaux .
superconductivity and quantum computer: primarily resulting from micro-electronics, this field can be qualified like that of the nanoelectronic .

The whole of these three fields articulate the ones with the others with more or less of intensity and distance. They have an significant impact on the methods of organization of the industrial activity which they mobilize in the zone concerned. Indeed, the nanobiology is primarily structured around many small companies and of the great pharmaceutical groups, whereas the industrial activities concerned with the nanoélectronique one are organized, essentially, around very great groups, some small companies and of the large divided equipment.

Molecular engineering

The molecular engineering, made possible thanks to the invention of an instrument like the microscope with tunnel effect, consists to build and develop molecules " with façon".

Medical

The biological and medical communities exploit the properties of nanomatériaux for varied applications (of the agents contrasting for the imagery of cells, of therapeutic for the fight against cancer).

One gathers under the term of Nanobiologie and Nanomédecine the applications in this field. In France, Patrick Couvreur is oldest representing researchers of this current of the NST.

One can add functions to nanomatériaux by interfacing them with biological structures or molecules. Their size is indeed rather close. The nanomatériaux ones are thus useful for research and the applications in vivo and in vitro . This integration allows the emergence of diagnostic tools or administration of drugs.

Energy

One can see projections in the field of storage, conversion, and the energy production like in that of energy saving.

Of the piled up structures of semiconductors makes it possible to reach greater outputs for the photovoltaic cells.

Of the reductions of the consumption of energy is made possible by systems of thermo isolation, an improvement of conducting materials. In the field of the production of light, the use of materials resulting from the nanotechnologies such as LED S make it possible to obtain an interesting output.

the combustible batteries, can gain in effectiveness by the use of nano-porous materials for the storage of the Hydrogène.

Electronic

the structures of the electronic chips or the integrated circuits are already on a scale Nanomètre and use the nanotechnologies intensively. The projections are constant in the fields of the communications, the Stockage of information and calculation.

Hardly not a long time ago, one considered that to integrate components of two Micron S would be the absolute threshold of miniaturization for transistors (the thickness of the feature on the circuits of the first processors of Intel was about 10 Micron S. At that time one thought that it would be quite difficult to exceed the barrier of a Micron).

In 2004, sections of 90 Nanomètre S constitute the state of the art and the processors are product bulk with a smoothness of 65 Nanomètre S as of the first six-month period 2006. Chips engraved in 45 Nanomètre S left semi-2007, the chips in 32 Nanomètre S should leave in 2008-2009 and engraving of 22 Nanomètre S is already considered… But there is an absolute limit, all at least for a technology inherited the conventional processes of Photolithographie including the evolutions of current technologies, such as photolithography “extreme-UV”, the lithography with x-ray hard, engraving by electron beam,… The nanotechnologies suggest a more radical new approach when the traditional ways reach their limits.

Let us note that two major difficulties prevail in the construction of electronic circuits containing nanotechnology, and thus the emergence of the Nano-data processing:

On a scale Nanomètre any object is only one assembly of same building blocs: atoms. On this scale of millionth of millimetre, the physical properties, mechanical, thermal, electric, magnetic and optical depend directly on the size of the structures and can differ basically from those of material on the level Macroscopique, such as one exploited it until now. That is due to a whole of reasons which include the quantum behavior of course, but also the increasing importance of the interfacial phenomena.

One is to date unable to control the coordinated assembly of a very great number of these devices of commutation (for example transistor with carbon nanotubes - CNFET for “Carbon Nanotube Field Effect Transistor” or monomolecular electronic circuits hybrid,…)on a circuit and even less to carry out that on an industrial sphere.

Behind the definitions of the NST?

The diversity of the research engaged in the field of the NST as well as the variety of the mobilized knowledge, brought the constitution of several definitions in litérature of the NST. This report can be based on two central ideas which have an significant impact on our capacity to find a definition single and stable:

the high growth rate (many articles and many patents for example) of this discipline compared to established sciences (by including the Biotechnologies which is stabilizing itself)
the fuzzy nature of the borders of this young discipline which hitherto assembles and reorganizes knowledge (partly) partitioned.

Definition by the properties of the matter

The NST can be characterized by the study of new properties of the matter appearing on a nanometric scale, in particular with the effects of the quantum surface and effects.

Indeed, on a nanoscopic scale the relationship between the various forces of interactions is different from the report/ratio on the scale Macroscopique. The forces of surface become dominating vis-a-vis the inertias, indeed:

the forces of Inertia and the Poids vary with the cube length characteristic of the handled objects (voluminal forces).
the forces of surface such as the forces of Van der Waals or the forces electromagnetic vary with the square length characteristic of the Objet.
the Force of Casimir is often considerable, and the axes rub more than if it did not exist.

In addition, low dimensions make it possible to utilize quantum effects such as the Tunnel effect, ballistic transport and the emission of fields. There exist direct applications in the field of the Semi-conducteur S and open prospects for the superconductive S.

For sizes about the nanometer, the electric, mechanical characteristics or optics of materials change. In addition, the reports/ratios of surfaces becoming dominating, the nanotechnologies open prospects in chemistry in particular for the Catalyze.

Definition by the approach bottom up

It is also possible to define the NST by the new step which would characterize them.

Historically, the manufacturing process of a machine or an object manufactured simple changing of handling and primarily macroscopic fittings. The materials are produced, formatted by removal of matter or deformation, then assembled on a matter aggregate scale large. More recently, the example of the microelectronic watch that we are able to produce on an equivalent surface, a number increasingly higher of constituent elements. Thus the number of Transistor S of the Microprocesseur S on a silicon chip doubles every two years (Loi of Moore). This increase illustrates the phenomenon of miniaturization which prevails in microelectronic and more largely in electronic.

By opposition, the nanotechnology is based on the opposite process: it consists from smallest going towards largest. It goes from the interior (of the atoms) towards outside (machines and manufactured goods). Therefore we will qualify “ascending” technology. The nanotechnology is thus the discipline which aims to study, handle and create groups of atoms then objects manufactured by the individual control of the atoms, “of bottom upwards”.

From this point of view, the generic term " nanotechnologies" relate to the controlled assembly of atoms and molecules in seen to form components of higher size characterized sometimes by new physicochemical properties.

Nanotechnologies and applications

Nanoparticules, nanomatériaux and marketed applications

Even if there were a passion on the potential applications of the nanotechnologies, most of the marketed applications is limited to the use of a “first generation” of nanomatériaux passive. That included titanium dioxide nanoparticules in the sun lotions, cosmetic and certain food products; iron nanoparticules in the food packaging; zinc oxide nanoparticules in the sun lotions and the cosmetics, in the external coatings, paintings, and in varnishes of furnishing; and of the cerium oxide nanoparticules intervening like a fuel catalyst.

A project counts the various products containing of the nanoparticules and based on nanotechnologies. In 2007, this project identifies more than 500 consumables based on nanotechnologies. In 2006, the report/ratio resulting from this project indicates to us that the principal sector concerned with the consumables nanotechnologic is that of health and the sports (clothing, accessories of sports, cosmetics, care personal, sun lotion,…) with 59% of the products followed electronics and data processing which gathers 14% of them (Audio and video; camera and films; data-processing hardware; mobile devices and communication).

Approaches bottom up and prospects

Moreover, the applications requiring the handling or the arrangement of the components to a nanometric scale (atom by atom) require the deepening of research in progress before leading to their marketing. Indeed, the technologies currently marked with the “nano” term are sometimes not very dependant and far away from the final objectives announced by the nanotechnologiques ones, in particular within the framework of the molecular factory which is an idea always suggested by the term. Thus, there can be a danger that a “nano bubble” is formed (or who is being formed), resulting from the use of the term by the scientists and the contractors in order to collect financial means the additional ones, with depends on the real interest which the possibilities of the technological transformations represent in the long run.

David Mr. Berube, in a book on the nanotechnologic bubble, also concluded in this direction by recalling that part of what is sold as “nanotechnologies” is in fact a rehandling of the science of materials. This phenomenon could lead to the fact that the nanotechnologies are represented by an industry based primarily on the sale of nanotubes and nanowires (unidimensional wire measured out of nanometers), which would cause to limit the number of suppliers to some companies selling of the products with weak margins with very consequent volumes.

The organization of the NST

Financings of the NST

The scientific research requires an often important investment. In the case of the nanotechnologies, where the object of study specializes and which requires specific and expensive equipment, the required investments cannot be supported by only one team. To continue their research, the scientists and the engineers are financed by a great diversity of actors who can be gathered in three categories:

public organizations (government): the governments support strongly at the same time the applied research and the basic research. Indeed, certain countries have a system of validation of the patents which theirs are clean, as well as a great number of agencies and departments, which allowing to support obtaining contracts or the protection of the intellectual property. The public organizations thus play a big role in the deployment of the means of coordination, making it possible to improve circulation of knowledge in the scientific community, as to support the meeting between the researchers, organizations, universities and institutions.
non-profit organizations: the universities constitute the heart of this category, although for their research they often receive external financings of sources, like the government and but also the industrial sectors concerned. In this category intervenes also a multitude of organizations of private bases and other organizations which support, without directly financial objectives, research in sciences.
Entreprises and private sector: in the majority of the developed countries, the private sector is on the initiative of approximately the three quarters of the national expenditure of research and development. This importance of the private sector is to be moderated with situations like those of the United States or the European Union, which has governments which investment in the NST by proposing a policy of research and strong innovation, in particular in the first phases of development of new industrial sectors, like the east that of the NST.

By taking into account at the same time the private sector investments and public of R & D relating to the nanotechnologies, it is possible to position the countries the ones compared to the others according to the volume of the investments carried out. However, this operation requires precautions insofar as, on the one hand the size of the compared entities intervenes and on the other hand, for the fact that each government with often an apparatus as well as methods of specific financings of research. Thus, in 2005 the R & D of the NST were financed with the height of 48,1% by the governments, of 46,6% by the companies and 5,2% by Capital risk for a total invested over the year of 9,57 billion $. While following this distribution, the arriving country at the head is the United States (1,606 billion $), followed from Japan (1,1 billion $), of Germany (413 million $), of the European Union (269 million $), and of China (250 million $). France, as for it, arrives in 8th position, by cumulating a total of 103 million $ dedicated to the R & D of the nanotechnologies. The European Union announces more than one doubling of the budgets allocated with the outline programmes which would pass from envy 20 billion euro (between 2002 and 2006) to 53,2 billion (over the period 2007 to 2013). For this reason, the nanotechnologies appear in good position in the Coopérations category of the 7th PCRD, which primarily aims at supporting the creation of partnerships between various research teams European (and the countries partners), like developing multi-field and transverse research. In 2008, the budget allocated with NOR would be of 1,5 billion $, that is to say more of triple of the expenditure estimated for the year 2001 (464 million $).

Taking into consideration invested sum, this type of program strongly influences the structuring of spaces of the scientific research and the nature of committed collaborations. Indeed, it is starting from initial axes of development that are defined concrete objectives which bring to build call with projects.

To note as regards nanotechnologies the importance of the Grenoble-native technopolis who represents a basin of research and engineers single in Europe in this field. Emerging countries, in particular Morocco created priority areas dedicated to research in nanotechnologies.

The sociology of the NST

A financial manna for the physicists

August 1st

The phenomenon of relabelisation

August 1st

All the laboratories posting their membership of the field of the NST necessarily did not inflect their sets of themes of research. Some have " relabélisé" their work by adding the prefix " nano" , without anything to change on the bottom.

Philosophy of the NST

August 1st

Bernadette Bensaude Vincent analyzes the particular report/ratio which the scientists implied in the NST with their objects maintain study.

Discusses ethical and risks

See also: Debate on the nanotechnologies

The stakes and the risks induced by the incorporation of materials nanotechnologic (in particular with the nanoparticules) as well as the new applications which will be allowed by the means of the control of manufacture on an atomic scale, nourish a sharp debate. One of these controversies could be summarized around the idea that the end of the twentieth century was marked by a development scientific and major, whose consequences by all are not yet identified and which it is advisable in these circumstances to show prudence and to examine the apriori risks pursuant to the precaution principle.

References

Chronology

1959 : Richard Feynman holds his speech with the Caltech where he declares “ There is Plenty off Room At the Bottom ” (There are many parts in bottom, insinuation: to explore)
1974: First mention of the term nanotechnology , forged by Norio Tanigushi
1981: Invention of the Microscope to tunnel effect
1985: Discovered Fullerène S
1986: Invention of the Microscope to atomic force
1986: Publication of " Engines off Creation: The Coming Era off Nanotechnology" , of Kim Eric Drexler
1990: Researchers of IBM write the name of their company with 35 atoms of Xénon using a microscope with tunnel effect
1991: Discovered Nanotube S
2001: First Transistor carried out with a nanotube
2003: Millepede, prototype of system of Data storage, realized by IBM, and using nanometric perforations
2004: First Microprocessor S engraved with a smoothness of 0,09 µm, is 90 Nm, at Intel and AMD
2005: Intel builds Transistor S of 65 Nm
2006: Intel is in phase of test for engraving in 45 Nm which should arrive in 2007
2006: June 2nd, inauguration of Minatec to Grenoble

See too

Internal bonds

Biotechnology S
Microsystem electromechanical
electromechanical Nanosystème
quantum Nanorobot
Nano-data processing
Mechanical
Debate on the nanotechnologies

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