Motivation

History of the concept

The idea of motivation is already present in the tripartite division of the heart at Plato. The epithumia is at the origin of the desire to eat or to reproduce. Sit of the Besoin S physics, this belly must be controlled by the thumos , the average element, with the service of the Raison ( noos ). This appetitive or conative function is thus opposed to the Cognition. By using the modern psychological vocabulary, the thumos can be interpreted like the emotion, with the hinge between the Désir and the reason.

The general point of view of ancient philosophy, expressed particularly by the Eudémonisme, considers that the research of the Bonheur is the imperative requirement at the base of the motivation; other waitings while being only objective S partial and separately insufficient.

It is difficult to recall the history of the general concept of motivation, owing to the fact that it was not really studied between the Antiquité and the 20th century. However, one can make a parallel with the history of the organization of work, which uses (not always in a direct way) the restricted concept of motivation to work.

With the the Middle Ages like today, the type of organization is in relation to the type of trade considered. Thus, one can take the example of the craftsman. The artisanal Know-how, gave him the possibility of organizing its work as it wished it. One can think that the motivation was thus relatively important, from the fact that the craftsman carried out his work of the beginning to the end, and that at its rate/rhythm (intrinsic motivation). Later, at the end of the Moyen-âge, one attends the creation of Atelier S and large companies, which coincides in the passing to the modern time. Consequently, the mode of organization changes, and thus one can conceive that the motivation of the employees decreases consequently. As from this moment, the art of the Organization and Management will quickly become a need.

At the 18th century, Jeremy Bentham designs the individual like answering the Utilitarisme, in particular by devoting to subtle a arithmetic Plaisir S.

Kant expresses two origins of the motivation. The first being the Owe, while the second is the satisfaction Désir or significant motivation.

In its newspaper, Maine de Biran seems to regard the interior freedom as the characteristic of a fundamental motivation; motivation without particular object but with which all the others should maintain the reports/ratios of dependence or conciliation. He writes: “It is true that there is in us a clean force which gives itself to itself does not receive its direction and it that as far as she wants it”, of many pages after having used a Métaphore of circumstance: “The virtuous man carries in itself a monarchy where all the forces are subjected to only one; where all bends in front of interior freedom”. This “clean force” and to some extent “royal” is not other than the heart; this one having for vassal the various powers to be it and its motivations.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the Taylorism, and a little later the Fordisme, set up the OST (Scientific management). For Taylor, the motivation is the consequence of the Salaire, and it does not take account of the intrinsic motivations of the employee, which dehumanizes the work.

“The consequences of Taylorism prevail still now in our companies”, although it is known today that the wages are not a factor of motivation of the employee, but a factor of satisfaction, and that the splitting up of the task implies a “passive execution of work, without personal involvement. treat on a hierarchical basis the Besoin S, and known as that the more one “goes up” of level, and the more important the motivation is. But one cannot reach the higher levels, only if the more primary needs are satisfied.

This theory also specifies that “these needs have a multidimensional structure”, i.e. of a subject with another, the “level of satisfaction of the needs”, is that it shows that the motivation can be influenced by external factors, called extrinsic.

For Herzberg, the motivation varies according to internal factors, but the demotivation influences according to the external factors, which it calls factors of hygienes.

Thus, the motivation is not possible that if the factors of hygienes are low. But there is motivation only in the event of rise of the internal factors, called so intrinsic.

These two concepts (motivation and demotivation) are thus parallel, and do not raise of a continuum.

The sum of comments and critics caused by work of Herzberg is important. The method used for the collection of the data is often criticized because source of skew. Indeed, the method of the critical incidents consisted in collecting the moments when the employees felt happy and moments when they felt dissatisfied. Thus proceeding, the conclusions establish that only the intrinsic factors (achievement of oneself, work in itself, responsibilities) contribute to satisfaction, their absence leading to neutral states. Extrinsic factors (remuneration, qualities of hierarchical…) would decrease the dissatisfaction, but would not influence or little satisfaction. The distribution between internal and external factors can be questioned. One can indeed wonder whether the entrusted responsibilities are an internal or external factor. Overall, this model confuses two clearly distinct concepts briskly today: motivation and satisfaction. This criticism is carried by authors like Claude Levy-Leboyer or Robert Francès. The interest of this model is to have generated the movement known as of enrichment to work.

The theory of the need for realization of McClelland (1961)

This theory is built starting from the measurement of the needs, using TAT. David McClelland emphasizes three types of needs making motivation to the work:

needs for realization: this emulously returns to succeed (Achievement);
needs to be able: this returns to want to have influence on others;
needs for affiliation: this returns to the need for satisfactory social relations.

Thus, these three factors seem to have as objective to show that “the will to succeed is an auto- powerful motivation”.

The theory of the characteristics of the task (1968)

This theory had, for historical effect, an enrichment of the work, by the fact of the nature of the task suggested by the author. For Hackman, the researcher at his origin, one finds five factors influencing the motivation:

variety of the spots (V);
tasks being able to be entirely realized (I for identity);
significance of the tasks (S);
the individual Autonomy (A);
a return on its activities (F for feedback).

Hackman and Oldham propose a formula in order to calculate a score of motivation:

Later, in 1976, these two authors added several factors including one important, the Désir of recognition, which would affect the five others.

The theories behaviorists

The Behaviorism holding by principle for negligible the internal individual characteristics, the motivation results always initially from factors bound more or less narrowly to the Conditionnement and more precisely from different the extrinsic reinforcement S exerted on the behaviors considered as positive.

Theory V.I.E of Vroom (1964)

This theory cognitivist, also called “the theory of the anticipated result”, rests on three concepts:

the “valence” (V): It is the value, positive or negative, whether one allots to the result of his actions or his performance. It is to answer the question: what do I obtain in return for my achieved performance, it is important or not for me? Within the framework of work, for example, the important thing for some can be the level of the wages, for others to have spare time. These preferences are measurable on a scale from -10 to +10;
“instrumentality” (I): Does the performance correlate with the result? It is the probability perceived of the bond between the performance to reach and what I discount in return. Will it is to answer the question then, if I do that, I obtain that in return? Measurable on a scale from 0 to 1;
“waiting” (E): Does the effort lead to a performance? it is to answer the question, if I mobilize myself to do that, I will arrive at this performance? Measurable on a scale from 0 to 1.

One will find a description of this model of motivation in French in the treaty of occupational psychology of C. Levy-Leboyer and JC. Spérandio published with the PUF in 1987 or more recently in Legrain H. Motivation to be learned: myth or reality? Harmattan, 2003, page 42 to 51. The interest of this model is that quantitative research could show a bond between the motivation, thus measured, and the efforts made in a work or a training.

Vroom proposes a formula calculating the force of the motivation (F):

The theory of the equity of Adams (1963, 1965)

According to this theory (1963, 1965), the individual would even calculate a “score” for him, and a score for others, in order to determine if there is “social justice”. The motivation would thus come from the mental representations (theory cognitivist).

Knowing that R corresponds to the Results (e.g.: wages), and have with the Contribution (e.g.: effort given).

If the score of the subject is equal to that of others, then there is equity, and thus it will be justified;
If the scores are unequal, then it does not have equity there, and the motivation drops. Even if the subject would be over-estimated, it will lose its motivation, not by a behavioral change, but by a change of perceptions.

The theory of the inversion (1982)

The motivation between nature and culture

Engaged in a given situation, the individual expresses a certain motivation; simply known as of the “spirit” (or fills with enthusiasm). In Pedagogy, one speaks about “situational motivation”.

The spirit is itself function of a more individual motivation corresponding to the personal attractions of the situation; for example, the spirit of a student in the study of a particular work will be partly dependant on its taste for the Lecture. One can speak on this level about a “usual motivation”; motivation ready more or less to engage the individual in all the situations favorable to its expression.

The usual motivation is firstly determined by the major interests of the intimate individual or “motivations” and incidentally by elements related to its history, with its development. The Plaisir (cf System hedonic) is the central criterion of this level of motivation since it announces the adequacy of the interests with a possible form of expression.

In pedagogy, one speaks about “contextual motivation”: it is by a contextual motivation of esthetic order that a pupil will attend with rapture a opera whereas with the swimming pool, it is the pure pleasure of swimming which will fill with enthusiasm it.

These degrees of motivation between the close friend and lived of the successive Expérience S would be enough to describe a isolated individual, without relation, since it would be enough for him to be let derive with grée to opportunities which would arise without having any account to return. But we know with Sartre that “the individual is a Abstraction”, and that the culture is present in the middle of the man, via the Communication, the education, the association S.

If the Nature takes part by the pleasure in the motivation, the Culture (opposing spontaneousness partly) implies the reinforcement in the motivation of the criterion of autonomy. Very early the Enfant supplements the pleasures of “eating” or “looking at” by satisfaction eating or looking at what he intends to eat and look at; very early autonomy is essential on him like a essential Instinct, instinct which will variously be recognized by its relative S. Reacting to the interferences of a cultural nature with its Désir S, the need for autonomy pushes the individual to keep under control his choice.

The motivation when it is determined by the Plaisir and the feeling of autonomy are known as “intrinsic”.

For close friend that it is, the need for autonomy is not only one defensive posture, it can be expressed in particular by the need for success (Atkinson (1983)). But a success which would answer only one social need, with an educational injunction, known as “will be justified extrinsèquement”.

In short:

“An activity which is practiced for itself, for its contents known as is intrinsically justified, while an activity which is practiced for its effects - for obtaining a positive consequence or for the avoidance of a negative consequence - known as extrinsèquement is extrinsèquement justified. ”

Finally, private of satisfaction or conviction, a motivated person extrinsèquement is not primarily interested by the activity in oneself. In teaching, this motivation will stick to obtaining a note, of a positive appreciation of the professor, a Diplôme.

The estimate of an extrinsic degree of motivation should not mask complexity at the base of the motivation and make fall into a schematism in which motivations or individuals of a type or another would be distinguished without greatest caution. Scales of motivation based on this model try to frame this discrimination.

This “intrinsic/extrinsic” polarity was developed like a continuum in the theory of self-determination (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 1991).

These authors define several degrees of autonomy (or loss of autonomy) according to the intensity of the assimilation of the cultural constraints, since the simple taking into account (“identified regulation”) until the “lapse of memory” of the initial aspirations (“external regulation”, opportunism), the intermediate grade being an interiorization of the constraints (“introjectée regulation”).

However, this gradation applied to the training does not reduce the paradox of “wanting the autonomy” of learning and the effect of double constraint which results from it with the detriment from autonomy; for this reason “not to make obstacle with self-determination! ” is a watchword of first importance.

The theory of self-determination speaks about “autodéterminée motivation” when the need for autonomy plays a priority part; she adds to it the need for competence and the need for social membership; three psychological needs forming according to it the base for the human motivation.

Biological bases implied in the motivation

The Neuroscience S put, these last years, in light the various biological bases implied in the motivation. They are composed of Hormone S, and various parts of the central Nervous system. These last will be used as lightings, in order to better include/understand certain types of motivation, explained Ci afterwards.

Hormones and motivation

A motivation, being used for the primary education achievement of satisfaction such as the aggressive and sexual behaviors, can be explained by the increase in certain hormones. It is well-known, indeed, that at the time of the Adolescence for example, the rate of hormone is correlated positively, and significantly with the Comportement S aggressive and turned towards the Sexe. But it is quite obvious, that these hormonal discharges, could not be the single explanation of more advanced behaviors.

Hypothalamus and motivation

The Hypothalamus can be also associated with the motivation with behavior appeasing certain physiological needs such as the Soif and the Faim. This “expert” of the vegetative System, is the “commander” of these behaviors. Indeed, “the hypothalamus can be regarded as a genuine computer of the vegetable life which programs the physiological components of the hunger, thirst, sexuality, ovulation, the basic rates/rhythms of the sleep, etc”. Moreover, this second explanatory factor of the motivation is directly connected to the limbic system, which is in the center of the human emotions, and thus, makes it possible to start, or inhibit, of the aggressive behaviors.

For example, the stimulation of the ventral median hypothalamus involves the release of the Lutte, whereas at the dorsal level, it starts the escape. The side hypothalamus, stimulated cholinergiquement, starts either thirst, or the Agressivité.

System hedonic and motivation

The System hedonic, or the networks determining in the feeling of Pleasure, takes part obviously in the release of this force which is the motivation. Skinner illustrated that with its box, where rats were directly stimulated on the level of these nerve centres. Those Ci preferred to die of hunger, or to pass over an electrified netting, rather than to stop stimulating itself.

Sources of motivation

Needs

Physiological needs

This kind of motivations, is seen like such, by the theory of the impulse of Hull (1943, 1952). Easiest to analyze, at least superficially, those are based on obvious physiological needs. That includes the Faim, the Soif and the desire to escape the Douleur.

The analysis of the processes which underlie of such motivations can use research on the animals, in ethology, comparative Psychologie and physiological psychology, and that of the hormonal processes and the brain in what seems common at least for all the Mammifère S and probably all the Vertébré S. Cependant:

at the human ones, these motivations of bases are modified and transformed by social and cultural influences several kinds: for example, no analysis of the hunger at the human ones can be unaware of the problem of the disorders of the appetite like the Anorexie and the Obésité, for which the parallels in the other animals is not very clear;
even in the animals, it is clear that the former models Homéostase “lack-provisioning” are not adequate any more because of many animals nourish themselves by precaution rather than on the basis of reaction, the most obvious case being that of the preparation to the Hibernation.

Thus, the activation of the hypothalamus, which starts innate behaviors, can be done only by the presence of interior stimuli, coupled to environmental stimuli. However, the latter can take very complex forms (culture…), which shows that the motivation even innate behaviors are not so simple that one could accept it the first access.

Other biological motivations

On another level, one finds other motivations having an obvious base biological but which are not necessary for as much to the immediate survival of the organization. That includes the powerful motivations for the Sexe, the parental care and the aggression: there still, the physiological bases are similar at the human ones and the other animals, but social complexities are larger at the human ones (or perhaps we include/understand better those of our own species).

In these fields, analyzes starting from the behavioral ecology and of the Sociobiologie offered new approaches in the last decades of the 20th century, but remain discussed. Perhaps similar, but on another level, are the motivation to seek a stimulation new - called exploration, curiosity or search for an excitation.

A crucial problem in the analysis of such motivations arises when they have a homeostatic component, which can increase with time if it is not discharged; this idea was component a key of the analyzes of the beginning of the 20th century like, for example, at Freud and Konrad Lorenz, and it is a big factor of the popular Psychologie of the motivation. “The psychodynamic prospect seeks to discover the reasons and the unconscious influences which are organized around the sexual instincts and aggressive to direct the behavior (Freud 1915)”. The later decades, better informed at the Biological level however, imply that such motivations are situational and appear when they are (or seem to be) necessary to ensure fine shape of the animal; they reabsorb without consequence when their occasion passes.

Secondary goals

The important secondary biological needs tend to generate more powerful emotions and thus motivations more important than of other needs. One of the most known studies is that of Abraham Maslow with its famous Pyramide of the needs. A distinction can be made between direct and indirect motivation. It is for example the case between a pleasant framework of work and remuneration related to this activity.

Other types of needs

In addition to the physiological needs, other types of needs can intervene as a source of motivation. Psychological needs such as the needs for regard of oneself, achievement, being able, intimacy, etc are an important source, as well as the social needs the such need to have interpersonal relationships.

Emotions

The emotions, such as the love, the fear, etc are also of important sources of motivations.

Cognitions

Certain sources of motivation call upon cognition, such as for example, the goals that we fix ourselves and the values to which we adhere.

Self-checking

The self-checking of the motivation is more and more included/understood like a subset of the emotional Intelligence. A person can be very intelligent according to a preserving definition (measured by many tests of intelligence), but not motivated to dedicate her intelligence to the achievement of certain tasks. The theory of the hope of Victor Vroom provides a value (the valence - cf. theory of Vroom) which shows this idea of self-checking, i.e. this desire for working towards a particular end.

The self-checking is often contrasts about it with the automatic process of stimulus-answer, as in the Paradigme of the behavior of B.F. Skinner.

External sources

Certain external sources at the organization can motivate us or influence our behavior and possibly become internal motivations. For example, the positive Reinforcement or the training by observation is two forms of external sources which with long can recruit interest.

Coercion

The most obvious form of external motivation is the Coercition, when the avoidance of the pain or other negative consequences has an immediate effect. When such a coercion is permanent, she is regarded as a Esclavage. Although coercion is regarded from the ethical point of view as reprehensible by much of philosophies, it is largely practiced on the prisoners and also in the form of the Conscription. The critics of the modern Capitalisme declare that without networks of social protection, the slavery of the employees would be inevitable.

Motivation of control

The control of the motivation is included/understood only one partial manner. There are many approaches of the “drive to the motivation”, but much are regarded as pseudoscience by criticisms. To include/understand how to control the motivation it is initially necessary to include/understand why so many people miss motivation.

In the recent years, activities not remunerated as surfing on the Internet became increasing concerns for the employers, in particular those of the nations known as rich. Certain companies used Tactique S constraining to counter what is perceived like a threat, others try to define some limiting and the majority apply reprisals in the extreme cases. Even for the users “in residence”, the dependence with Internet, the video games or on television poses a problem of Désir.

Their use can be explained by a loop of positive reinforcement fast by endorphin supply, a substitute family and the food of curiosity. It is known that neuronal connections are increased by the repetition of the activity, which means that it is easier to start again an action (the practice) to do something again.

The key question for the motivation is then: which activities generate a positive emotional answer, and which do not do it? The answers to this question are explored more and more by the Neuropsychologie. “the main themes of the cognitive neurosciences finds the neurobiology of the states of vigilance and motivation concerned by the behaviors directed towards a goal. ” It is known that for the majority of people, the activities which include/understand strong audio-visual impressions have a more important emotional effect. Information S only resulting from a text, contrary, are usually little justifying. That seems Intuitif considering to read is a capacity trained with a cortical high level whereas most of the brain is assigned to the treatment of the audio-visual one.

As the human ones are social animals, it appears as Naturel as social connections play a crucial role in the motivation. One knows few things on the way in which the human brain treats such relations, but one can ensure that they are powerful. As personal reasons can obstruct the checking routines of the motivations, one tries to learn to the teachers and to leaders to find relations for their personal feelings elsewhere than with their students and employees.

Early programming

The images by magnetic resonance (IRM) contemporary got a solid empirical support for the psychological theory according to which the emotional programming is largely defined in the Enfance, the more so as at the nine months age the brain has already 95 % of the volume which it will have at the age Adulte. -->

Organization

Beside the direct approaches with the motivation, starting early in the Life, it is solutions which are more abstract but perhaps nevertheless more practical for the automotivation. In practice, each deliver-guide of motivation includes at least a chapter on good the Organization of the tasks and goals of each one. It is stated for example that it is essential to maintain the list of what is made and of what remains to be made and to prevent that the routine does not cause a drop in the Attention. Many organiseurs of pocket who manage these lists make only remove what is made instead of keeping it in a separate list.

There exist more sophisticated programs which show the evolution of the network.

An aspect interesting and relatively neglected by the Sociologie is the nature of dependence of the Roleplays which use a system of points of experiment and “levels” to motivate the player and to encourage it to continue; when it gained sufficient points, it can progress at the following level, and thus obtain new faculties and a higher statute in the Communauté, if there is one of them. Although many electronic systems have a basic concept of the priorities, little explore this possibility in a Community way.

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