Morphology of tsez

This article is the translation of a section of one.

Names

The Nom S are bent according to the number and of the Cas. They are associated with nominal classes.

The number

The names can be in the singular or. Plural is formed by adding - Bi to the radical with the Absolutif: besuro (fish) → besuro-Bi (fish). With the other cases, the suffix is - za ; thus, " fish (genitive) " becomes besuro-za-s .

Cases

There exist 8 syntactic cases, and a much greater number of rental cases, which distinguish three categories: the position, orientation and direction. Therefore, if one holds account at the same time rental and nonrental cases, one arrives at a total of 64.

Tsez is a ergative language , which means that it does not make distinction between the subject of an intransitive sentence and the object of a transitive sentence: both are with the case Absolutif, not marked, and the subject of the transitive sentence is with the case Ergatif.

According to Ramazan Rajabov, for 42% only of the names the oblique radical is different from the absolutif radical. For certain names, it is their internal structure which changes (for example a vowel), while for others one adds to the end a " what is called; suffix thématique" (one counts a score of it), who will be followed other accidental suffixes. For example, the word which means “language” or “language”, is guy , but its oblique radical is mecr- : plural is thus mecrebi , ergatif the mecrā , etc Rajabov notices that it is sometimes difficult, even for native speakers, to choose the suffix set of themes correctly. These suffixes probably find their origin in two forms different of plural, in the same manner as in English the word children (children) has in fact two antiquated endings of plural, - (E) R and . In tsez it is even possible sometimes to use antiquated plural as well as the normal and more productive form - Bi for the same mot.

Suffixes of the syntactic cases

The difference between the two cases genitives is that first is used as attribute of a absolutif principal name, and the second of an oblique. The genitive-1 will thus be used in expressions such as žekʼu-s is (the bull of the man), whereas the genitive-2 is used in žekʼu-z is-er (for the bull of the man).

The équatif-1 is used to carry out comparisons, as in besuro this (like a fish); it can also be associated with other cases.

Rajabov suggests 3 additional syntactic cases, namely the possessive -1 ( - łay ), the possessiveone ( - xu ), and the Abessif ( - tay ). However, their statute can make debate, because they seem to present at the same time flexional and dérivationnelles tendencies.

Suffixes of the rental cases

#Le allatif case is also called “versatif”.

Among the forms indicated, that of the top indicates the not-distal form (i.e. near), that of the lower part, the distal form (= distant) of the suffix. With not-distal there exist sometimes two similar forms for the allatif one. The epenthetic vowel O between brackets appears behind nominal radicals ending in a consonant; thus, " beside the taureau" is-xo is translated, whereas " beside the poisson" besuro-x is said.

Nominal classes

Tsez distinguishes four nominal classes in the singular, and two in the plural. They are indicated by prefixes attached to the verbs, the adjectives, various postpositions such as - oƛƛʼo (" entre") or - iłe (" comme") and with the emphatic particle - uy to agree with the name. The agreement is not possible that for the words starting with a vowel or a pharyngalized vowel, but one finds also some words starting with a vowel which do not take these prefixes.

As the inanimate objects cover classes II, III and IV, it is not obvious to determine to which class an inanimate object must belong. However, certain tendencies based on the semantic field of the names become apparent. Names indicating of the objects likely to move (like: sun, the moon, star, flash, car, train ) usually belong to class III, whereas the products which traditionally refer to work women (like: clothing, bays , and also milk ) often concern class II. Made leather clothing - just as the word meaning leather itself - usually is assigned with class III, because of their relation with the animals. Class IV included originally abstracted terms, collective names and of mass, such as: water, salt, sky or wind . The materials often seem to determine nominal classes: " chaise" and " bois" are both of the names of class IV. The form also seems to have an influence (the things punts are associated with class II, the round things with class III, and the long things with class IV). Same manner, the proper names are assigned with the class of the names which they indicate. Thus, Patʼi (" Fatima") is assigned with class II, because it is about a female name, and Asaq (a village tsez) belongs to class III, because " village" ( ʕaƛʼ ) belongs to the same group. As for the new loanwords, they are assigned with the nominal class of a word tsez existing and semantically similar. It is interesting to notice that, according to experiments, the Tsez speakers do not assign any nominal class with new words which they do not know or of which they do not know what the meant concerned one resembles.

Certain dérivationnelles endings require also a specific nominal class: to further see the section concerning derivation.

The verbs and the adverbs always agree with the absolutif argument of the proposal, without regard to its transitivity or its intransitivité.
If there is more than one absolutif argument bound by the conjunction - N (O) (" et"), and that one of them belongs to the first nominal class, then it is the plural of the class I which controls the agreement for the proposal; if not, it is the plural of class II/III/IV. Compare:

and:

NB: PSTWIT = last attesté

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

The personal pronouns exist in tsez only with 1st and the 2nd person; for the 3rd person, one uses conclusive the že (singular) and žedi (plural). As the personal pronouns in the singular have the same form with absolutif and the ergatif one, a sentence such as Di semi okʼsi is ambiguous, because it can mean at the same time “I struck you” and “You struck me”, because of the relatively free order of the words. However, they have a different form with the oblique cases and an irregular form with the genitive-1, the same one as the plural pronouns. The singular pronouns have also the same forms for all four nominal classes, while in the plural this distinction is marked, as indicated in the table below.

1. This form is used in front of the final consonant of a syllable, such as the suffix - R .

2. This form is used in front of the initial consonant of a syllable, such as the suffix - of .
3. the special forms of the two genitives are used when the owner constitutes an closed group, in particular a family: thus eli eniy is used in the place of elected eniy to mean " our mère". Conclusive plural žedi (" those, ils") present also this feature: for an closed group, it with the form žedi with the genitive-1, and žediz with the genitive-2. For ordinary owners the respective forms are žedus and žeduz .

• There exists also a considered personal pronoun, meaning " oneself-même" , which is žo ( = coil ) or ( = oneself ) with the oblique form.

Conclusive pronouns

The conclusive pronouns are suffixes attached to the name concerned. They are bent according to the nominal class, of the number and the case, and they present a binary distinction between the proximal (near, as in French: " this/that-ci") and distal (moved away, French: " that/that-là"), the latter being also used in place of personal pronouns to the 3rd person.

The oblique forms are used in an attributive way, and also as a base to which other accidental suffixes (oblique) can be attached.

1. the forms - ł is used optionnellement afterwards vowels at the end of the words.

Interrogative pronouns

The interrogative pronouns distinguish between the human one (" who? ") and thehuman one (" what? ") with the oblique forms only, but not with the absolutif one. Interrogative pronouns of the " category; non-humain" require the affix of class IV when they start an agreement.

The interrogative pronouns which replace a complement (like " when? " or " why? ") usually present themselves to the beginning of the sentence, whereas those which replace a term (" who? " , " what, what? " , etc) often appear in the place of the term which they replace. However, they can them also be placed at the head to carry out a bond in a particular speech. Thus, the word šebi placed at the head could be translated by " Which thing…? " instead of " What/what…? ".

Among the other interrogative pronouns, one can quote:

• dice (" how much? " , English " how much? ")
• didiyu (" which? ")
• didur (" how? ")
• łina-s (" why? ") ; this seems to be the form of the genitive-1 of the interrogative pronoun obliques not-human
• nā (" where? ") ; radical Na
• neti (" when? ")
• šidā (" why? ")
• šomo (" how much? " , English " how many? ")

Verbs

Tsez has a rich person verbal morphology, taking account of many categories. In spite of the complexity of the Conjugation, the only verb authentically irregular is the verb to be , with its forms yoł (present), ānu (present negative), zow- (past), etc It exists 4  morphological groups, distinguished by the final phoneme from the radical. The first group finishes by a consonant, the second in I , the third in - U , and the fourth group includes/understands the verbs which end alternatively in - D (in front of a vowel) and there (elsewhere).

Time, aspect, mode

There exist five temporal forms - Aspect uelles with the indicative , as indicated in the table hereafter, which presents examples of verbs with radical to vocalic and consonant termination.

• In the interrogative sentences (" questions; qui" , " quoi" , " quand" , etc), the suffix of the attested past is - ā instead of - S (I) .

• In the questions of the type yes/not, the verb with a definite form takes an additional termination - ā , except with the attested past, which takes - iyā (after a consonant) or - yā (after a vowel).
• the distinction between two future times is that the definite future implies a will of the speaker (" I want to do something and will do it… "), and is used only with the 1st person, while the indefinite future, without connotation of will, tends to be used with 2nd and 3rd people.
• the other modes are formed as follows:
• the imperative is deprived of suffix in the case of the intransitive verbs (e.g. - ikʼi! " goes! "), and takes the suffix - O if it is about a transitive verb (e.g. - tʼetʼr-o! " lily! "); the verb is then usually placed in initial position in the sentence.
• the Optatif is obtained by adding a - ƛ to the imperative form, e.g. tʼetʼr-o-ƛ! (" that it reads! ").
• There exists also a large variety of analytical verbal forms:
• future emphatic = infinitive + " être" (at the present); e.g. - ikʼ-a yoł (" irai")
• continuous Aspect = imperfect gerund + " être" (with the suitable temporal-aspectual form); e.g. - ikʼi-x zow-if (" was in the train of partir")
• perfective aspect = perfect gerund + " être" ; e.g. - ikʼi-n zow-if (" was parti")
• perfect time = takes part resultative + " être" ; e.g. - ikʼ-āsi zow-if (" was parti")
• intentional = takes part present + " être" ; e.g. - ikʼi-xo-if zow-if (" the intention of partir" had;)
• resultative = imperfectif/perfective gerund + takes part resultative of - iči- (" to be situé") + " être" ; e.g. ikʼi-n - ič-ā-if zow-if (" was parti") or ikʼi-x - ič-ā-if zow-if (" was in the state to be on the way starting from ici").

Negation

The principal negative suffix with the code is - čʼV , where V is a variable vowel according to time/aspect/mode of the verb; it fits after the verbal radical. Thus, with the verb - ikʼi- (to go, to leave), the following forms are possible:

• the prohibitory one (i.e. the negative requirement) is expressed by the addition of the suffix - No with the form of the indefinite future of the verb, e.g. - āš-No! (" do not eat! ").

• the optative negative one is obtained by simply adding - ƛ to the preceding form: āš-No-ƛ (" that he does not eat! ").

Not combined forms

The Participe S behave like the adjectives and vary only according to the agreement of class, which is presented in the form of an affix. There are several kinds of participles tsez some:

The Coverbe S, such as the Gerund S and the adverbs verbal, are very numerous tsez some. The list which follows provides only one incomplete census of it. The table illustrates the relation between the temporal coverbe (C) and the principal verb (V):

1. the vowel of the radical is the vowel here preceding the last consonant. Notice that the radicals, contrary to the roots, include the causative ones; thus, - ikʼi- (" of aller") becomes - ākʼi- , but the causative form - ikʼir- (" to make partir") - ikʼār- becomes ! Sometimes also, of the not articulated epenthetic vowels can be lengthened in ā , like: tʼetʼr- (" apprendre"), which becomes tʼetʼār- .

• One can quote others coverbes nontemporal, such as:

• the perfective coverbes (completive) and imperfectifs , identical to the forms of passed and present not attested, is respectively: - N (O) and - X (O)
• the rental coverbe : - z-ā , with transformation of the vowel of the radical into ā
• the causal coverbe : - xoy , - za-ƛʼ or - za-q ; e.g. iš-nāy (" because of (its) départ")
• the conditional coverbe : - nāy or - łi ; e.g. iš-nāy (" if it mange")
• the concessive coverbe : - łin
• the infinitive : - has ; e.g. - iš-a (" manger")
• the verbal name (deverbal): - (A) nor ; e.g. - iš-ani (" the fact of manger") and - rečʼ-nor (" the fact of couper")

Potential and causative

The potential mode is characterized by the suffix - (E) ł , while the suffix of the mode Causatif is - (E) R . There too, the epenthetic vowel falls when the radical ends in a vowel or when another suffix starting with a vowel is attached. In the presence of the suffix - year of the defined future, for example, the epenthetic vowel must be erased: iš-er (" the fact manger"), but iš-R-year (" will make manger").

Particles

Tsez has a rich person collection of particles, whose majority intervene as a Clitique S. the particle - tow translates insistence in general, while - kin indicates the general authority and focusing. A topicalized component in a contrastive way is marked by the particle - gon . As these particles are clitic, they can be attached to any part of speech. There exists also a particle of quotation, used to bring back a speech in direct speech and which appears in the form of the suffix - ƛin , always placed at the end of the proposal or the quoted sentence. Example: Di žekʼu yołƛin eƛix kʼetʼā (" “I am a man”, known as the chat"). One can still quote other particles like hudu (" yes, it is ainsi") or āy (" non").

Formation of the words

Derivation

Suffixes of formation of the names

The list which follows is a selection of suffixes used to as well as form names starting from other part of speech of other names.

• - Bi / - zi (added to place names): inhabitants
  ex. Newo-Bi / Newo-zi (" inhabitant of Mokok" , of Newo " Mokok")
• - łi (added to names with the absolutif singular or adjectives with the form of class IV): abstract names and occupations
  ex. laɣ-łi (" esclavage" , of laɣ " esclave"), učitel-łi (" enseignement" , borrowed from Russian učitel " enseignant"), r-igu-łi (" grace, gentillesse" , of - igu " bon")
• - kʼu (added to verbs with the shape of the iterative radical): instruments or personal descriptions
  ex. ˁuƛʼno-kʼu (" poltron" , of ˁuƛʼ- , " to have peur"), "), ˁiya-kʼu (" pleureur" , of ˁiyad- , " pleurer")
• - nor (added to verbal radicals and names onomatopic): abstract names
  ex. rečʼ-nor (" acuité" , of rečʼ- " couper"), ˁoy-nor (" meuglement" , of ˁoy " meugler")
• - qu (added to names with their oblique radical) or the suffix avar less used - qan : container or occupation
  ex. magala-qu (" boulanger"), bocʼ-have-qu (" trap with loups"), qido-qan (" maçon")
• - qʼoy / - qoy / - ħoy (added to nominal radicals with the case obliques singular): enveloping objects
  ex. reƛʼi-qoy (" gant" , of reƛʼa " main")
• - yo (added to the singular lative case of a name): owner
  ex. kotʼu-r-yo (" man barbu" , of kotʼu " barbe").

Suffixes of formation of the adjectives

The following suffixes can be used to derive from the adjectives starting from another words:

• - driven (added to a singular absolutif name, an adjective or a verb): adjectival simple
  ex. boryo-driven (" maladif" , from boryo " painful, blessé"), atʼi-driven (" green (not ripe) " , of atʼiy " humide"), šakarya-driven (" jaloux" , of šakaryad- " to be jaloux")
• - šay (added to a nominal radical obliques): inseparable possession
  ex. čakaryo-šay čay (" the sucré" , litt. " the containing sucre")
• - tay (added to a nominal radical obliques): absence, lack
  ex. ciyo-tay (" not salé")
• - xu (added to a nominal radical obliques): separable possession
  ex. ciyo-xu raƛʼ (" ground with crystals of sel")

Suffixes of formation of the verbs

Certain suffixes of formation of the verbs, such as the derivatives causative and potential, were already mentioned in the section concerning the morphology of the verb. Other examples:

• - kʼ- (added to a qualitative adjective, an adverb, or sometimes an intransitive verb finished by - X ): transitive verbs
  ex. atʼi-kʼ- (" to wet, détremper" , of atʼiy " mouillé"), bito-kʼ- (" to move qqch" , of bittay " là-bas"), łicʼo-kʼ- (" unir" , of łicʼox- " mélanger")

• - ł- (added to a qualitative adjective or an adverb): intransitive verbs
  ex. atʼi-ł- (" humidifier" , of atʼiy " mouillé"), ade-x- (" avancer" , of adāy " opposite ").

Combination and reduplication

In tsez, it is also possible to create new words by combination of existing words; usually the nouns and the verbs are derived, but there exist also made up adjectives and adverbs. It should be noted that only the last component is bent, because it is about the principal term of the expression. However, it then does not control necessarily the assignment with a nominal class of the made up name - if one of the two components belongs to class I, the entire component belongs to this class, if not it is automatically affected with class II. Sometimes, the last component is truncated (see the 4th example). A suffixation can also intervene (see the 1st example). The list which follows is not exhaustive:

• debi-dey-łi " dispute, partage" (litt. " tone-mon" + nominalisator - łi )
• eni-obiy or eni-obu " parents" (litt. " father-mère")
• ħotʼo-čʼel "étrier" (litt. " site-pied")
• - ikʼi-nex- " to go of length in large" (litt. " outward journey-venir")
• ƛʼiri-ku "châle" (litt. ƛʼiri "by-dessus" - kur " jeter")
• niga-cʼuda "meurtri" (litt. " red-vert")
• rigu-žuka "anything " (litt. " good-mauvais")
• taqqo-naqqo "of length in large" (litt. " on this side - on this side-ci")
• tʼitʼi-ečʼ- "hacher" (litt. " to tear-découper")

Another frequent way to derive from the new words is the Reduplication, which can derive from the names as well as of the adjectives and the verbs. At the time of the reduplication of names, the initial syllable often undergoes a modification, as in xisi-basi " changements" however bix-mix (plants). This method is used to intensify adjectives (e.g. r-očʼi-r-očʼiy " very froid") and of the verbs (e.g. - okʼ-okʼ- " to strike with stabs répétés"), but it is also used for onomatopoeias (e.g. ħi-ħi " hennissement").

Another way still, very productive, to form verbs, results from the combination from a word (often a loan with Arabic or the avar) and verbs tsez - oq- (" to remain, devenir") or - od- (" faire"), although certain combinations can also be formed starting from other verbs. It is noticed that only the second word is bent, while the first remains not bent. Here some examples:

• bercin - oq- " to be décoré" (of the avar берцинав ( bercinaw ) " beau")
• paradat - od- " vendre" (of Russian продать ( prodat' ) " vendre")
• razwod b-od- "divorcer" (of Russian развод ( razvod ) " divorce")
• riƛu riƛʼ- "laborer" (litt. " to plow - field labouré")
• rokʼ-ƛʼo-r stripes " souvenir" (litt. " coeur-SUPER-LAT III-arriver")
• rokʼu r-exu- "to have pity (litt. " heart mourir")
• sapu y-od- "détruire"
• tʼamizi - od- " causer" (of the avar тIамизе ( tʼamize ) " forcer")
• woržizi - oq- " to steal (in the air) " (of the avar - оржизе ( - oržize ) " voler")
• xabar b-od- "parler" (of Arabic خبر ( xabar ) " news, message" via the avar хабар ( xabar ) " histoire")

Random links:

Monnetier-Mornex | T-35 | Saint-Georges-on-tailboard | Leadville | Spider monkeys geoffroyi | Khelili Mohamed Salem Rguibi | Gâteau_de_couche