Mont Blanc

The Mount Blanc (in Italian assembles Bianco ), in the Massif of Mont Blanc, between the Département of Haute-Savoie (France) and the Vallée of Aoste (Italy), object of a litigation between the two countries, is the culminating point of the chain of the the Alps. With an altitude of {{formatnum: 4810.90}} meters, it is more the high summit of Western Europe and the fifth on the continental level by considering the mountains of the the Caucasus, and it offers a broad panorama.

Many popular routes make it possible to climb it with a serious preparation, while thinking of respecting this fragile medium.

The top for several centuries has represented an objective for all kinds of adventurers, by beginning with his first rise in 1786, but also an object of fascination in cultural works.

Geography

Situation

The Mount Blanc rises in the middle of the Massif of Mont Blanc and constitutes the culminating point of the chain of the the Alps. It is also more the high summit of Western Europe, which is worth to him the nickname of Toit of Europe . It is located at horse between the France and the Italy, at the south of Chamonix (Département of Haute-Savoie, 200 kilometers in the east of Lyon) and at the North-West of Courmayeur (Vallée of Aoste, 150 kilometers in the North-West of Turin).

It dominates famous the Aiguille of the South to north and Grandes Jorasses in the North-East, and feeds directly the Glacier of Work towards the Vallée of Arve.

Panorama

Since the top of the Mount Blanc, it is possible to see or see four mountainous solid masses: the the Jura, the the Vosges, the Black Forest and the Massif Central. The remote theoretical vision depends on the geomorphology and the influence of the terrestrial Courbure.

Altitude of the Mount Blanc

Since 1863, the official altitude of the more high summit of the the Alps was a long time of: 4807 meters (geopotential ellipsoidal altitude), even if it had been refined with: 4807.20 meters in 1892.

In August 1986, an orthometric measurement by satellite gives an altitude of: 4808.40 meters.

Starting from 2001, the periodicity of measurements becomes biennial and is based to measures of the departmental Room of the expert geometricians of Haute-Savoie, using the Système GPS, framed by guides of Chamonix and Saint-Gervais, and a geodetic treatment of IGN. Made measurement this year gives: 4810.40 meters.

But after the heat wave, a new taken measurement the 6 and September 7th, 2003, notes a height of: 4808.45 meters and a shift of the summit edge of 75 centimetres towards the North-West compared to the countryside of 2001. At the time of this marketing year 2003, measurements of more than 500 benchmarks were taken, in order to study the summit cap as a whole and to entirely model it.

However, according to the geologist Luc Moreau and Weather France which collaborates in measurements, popular interpretation according to which the heat wave is responsible for this reduction in altitude is contestable, because it would not have involved significant cast iron of the Glace S above: 4000 meters of altitude. It could simply be a question of a random movement of the summit icecap, with the blowing liking of the strong winds at this altitude. Indeed, at this altitude the thermometer seldom passes above 0 °C, however even if at the time of the summer 2003, the temperature is assembled, during a few days, for +2°C and even +3°C, that does not suffice to cause the evaporation of the ice which remained with -15°C. In fact, this reduction could result from three phenomena:

  1. a phenomenon of general compressing of the glacial coat.

  2. a local compressing due to the additional hundreds of people who climbed the Mount Blanc during the summer 2003, because of the more significant number of days of good weather. Five parapentists, who had carried out a first by reaching the top, announced to have landed in a surface layer of softened snow, in which they were inserted to the knees.
  3. Moreover, the top of the Mount Blanc functioning like an enormous snow-drift, in fact the winds deposit the Neige on the top and modify its composition. With the least number of been windy days, less snow accumulates at the top.

At the time of the countryside 2005 made public the December 16th, the altitude of the Mount Blanc was measured with: 4808.75 meters, is 30 cm more than preceding measurement.

Lastly, at the time of the countryside of the 15 and September 16th, 2007, the altitude of the Mount Blanc was measured with: 4810.90 meters, is 2,15 meters more than preceding measurement. The volume of snow almost doubled, consequently occasion, since 2003, passing from: 14600 m with: 24100 Mr.

Altitude given is always that of the thick snow-covered layer capping the summit. Top until middle height, it is covered with “eternal snow” (from 15 to 23 meters thickness). The rock top, it, culminate with: 4792 meters and it is shifted of 40 meters in the west compared to the top, according to the instruments Radar and of the Carottage S.

The Mount Blanc is more the high summit of Western Europe. However, if one then considers that the Europe extends until the the Caucasus - in accordance with the geopolitical vision of the the Council of Europe -, four tops exceed it on the Russian territories and géorgiens: the Elbrouz which culminates with: 5642 meters, the Dykh Tau with: 5203 meters, the Chkhara with: 5058 meters and the Kazbek with: 5047 meters.

Climate

At the top, the speed of the wind can reach 150 km/h and the temperature -40°C.

The weather conditions can change very quickly (snow, fog). The wind reinforces the effect of cold (effect Windchill): the temperature falls of 10°C every 15 km/h of wind.

It can only contribute to him with the failure of a rise, even by professionals.

Geology

The Mount Blanc is representative of the geology of the solid mass: it consists of Granite to the abrupt walls in the east and north while the Pluto is covered with Gneiss in the west and the south. It is thus located at the junction between these two crystalline rock masses, the top itself, entirely under snow, doubtless making up of gneiss.

Fauna and flora

In the Alps, the Névé S persist beyond 2800 meters of altitude. The first slopes of the Mount Blanc being around 3500 meters, they are thus beyond the limit of the nival stage. The important snowy coat and the extreme climatic conditions return the living conditions of the plant species and animal almost impossible.

However, at the lowest altitudes or in the cliff hollows sheltered, certain plants manage to remain as the buttercup of the glaciers which one finds until: 4000 meters. However, the flora is limited primarily to foams and Lichen S.

The Mammifère S cannot live under the described conditions, contrary to certain species of birds: chocards with yellow nozzle, Grouse S, alpine accenteurs and others niverolles alpine.

The rise

Preparation

Nowadays, this top accommodates thousands of mountaineers and tourists per annum and is considered wrongfully as a long but easy rise for little that one well is involved and accustomed to the Altitude. This impression is reinforced by the fact that when one is with the Aiguille of the South, per good weather, the Mount Blanc can appear like “a pleasant covered with snow hill”: 1000 meters higher.

However, each year, solid mass of the made Mount Blanc of many victims (5 to 7 per annum only by the Royal roads). It is a race which requires to have a minimum of knowledge of the High mountain and which should not be made without being accompanied by a guide or at the very least by a qualified person, nor without adequate equipment. It is about a really long race which presents delicate passages as the corridor of Tasting with stone falls; moreover, one night in the refuge is a minimal condition to be accustomed to altitude and to be less exposed with frightening the Mal acute of the mountains which can involve the Mort.

Evidence of this difficulty, 120 interventions was carried out in 2006 by the Group of alpine gendarmerie (PGHM) including 80% for exhaustion (bad physical preparation, misses acclimatization); 30% of the mountaineers present wounds (gelures, wounds by cramps, disorders related to altitude) at the time of their return to the refuge; 33% only of success without the assistance of a professional (50% with). In the event of degradation of the climatic conditions, it is imperatively necessary to turn back.

The rise requires a specific technique in alpinism which should not be neglected: basic preparation 3 months before the departure, use of the Cramp S and Ice axe, progression with encordement, acclimatization with altitude. Despite everything that: 2000 with: 3000 people make a success of the rise each year.

Various routes

There exist some “traditional” routes to make the rise of the Mount Blanc:

  • the Way of the Glass cutters, or “Royal roads”. At the beginning of Saint-Gervais, one goes up first of all by the TMB (Tramway of Mont Blanc) to join the Eyrie. The rise then begins in direction from the Refuge from Russet-red Head, then passes by the dangerous corridor of Tasting (frequent stone falls) in order to join the Refuge of Tasting for the night. The following day, the rise passes by the Dôme of Tasting, the refuge Vallot and the edge of the Bumps. It is undoubtedly about the route more attended.
  • the Way of the 3 Mounts, or “the Crossing”. At the beginning of Chamonix, one goes up first of all by the Téléphérique of the needle of the South, then one goes down in direction from the collar from the South. From there, one joined the Refuge of Cosmic the to spend the night there. The following day, the rise passes by the Mont Blanc of Tacul, then the Cursed Mont.
  • the historical route, by the Large Mules, rather used the winter in ski, or summer for the descent on Chamonix.
  • the Italian normal way, or the road of the Gray Needles. After the crossing of the Glacier of Miage, the night occurs to the Refuge from Gonella. The following day, passage by the Collar of the Gray Needles, then by the Dome of Tasting where stops it is found Bumps.
  • the crossing Miage - Bionnassay - Mount Blanc, which is generally done in 3 days. At the beginning of the Contaminate-Montjoie, the night passed to the Refuge of the Conscripts. The following day, crossing of the Domes of Miage to join the Refuge Durier. The 3rd day, rise of the Needle of Bionnassay, then passage by the Dome of Tasting.

History of the Mount Blanc

The layout of the border

See also: History of the border on the Mount Blanc

According to whether one consults a chart published in France or Italy, one does not read the same layout of the border in the summit meeting of Mont Blanc: on the Italian charts, the top is a point of the line separating the two States, and is thus binational. On the other hand, the French charts reveal a roughly triangular French strip of land which points towards the south on the level of Mont Blanc: according to these charts, the top of the solid mass would be thus entirely in France, the border passing by the Mont Blanc de Courmayeur.

To include/understand them holding and outcomes of this situation, it is initially necessary to know that the existence of a border through the solid mass goes back to the transfer of Savoy in France, therefore for 1860 which is governed by a treated of Turin and its additional protocols.

A chart united with the treaty, rather vague, rather clearly makes nevertheless pass the border by the summit cap.

It is very early, starting from 1865 that the French charts start to present a new version of the layout: the topographic chart Staff of the captain Jean-Joseph Mieulet indeed reveals the French ground triangle which is reproduced until today on the published charts on the French side. The Italian charts, in particular the Sardinian Atlas of 1869, make they state of the layout passing by the top.

One can also mention the existence, side French, of a stopped of the September 21st 1946 which shares the sector of the Dôme of Tasting and of the Mount Blanc between the three communes of Saint-Gervais-the-Baths, Houches and Chamonix-Mount-White. Besides this decree adopts the interpretation of the frontier layout of the French Geological Survey maps and divides the litigious triangle in the south of the Mount Blanc between the two communes of Chamonix and Saint-Gervais. Parts analyzed by an Italian scholar show that the preparation of this decree was studied up to the ministerial level (a note dated from the June 5th 1946 and drawn up by the French Ministry for Foreign Affairs was devoted there).

On the end of the 20th century, the question is mentioned on several occasions by articles or works scholars, particularly on the Italian side, which support that the layout being reproduced on the French charts is without legal basis. The question having drawn the attention of the general public (it is even relayed officially by the deputy of the Val of Aoste Luciano Caveri in a question with the room), the Italian authorities put forward in 1995 their position with the French authorities by a report, at the time of work of a charged commission to provide a more precise layout of the border. France being abstained to answer it, and the Italian government not having supported with vehemence its claim, the situation perdure with identical today and do not seem distinct to date by any new part.

First rises

The first known rise of the top goes back to August 8th, 1786 by Jacques Balmat and the doctor Michel Paccard, at the instigation of Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, which offered a reward for his first rise, while thinking of thus boring the mystery of the geological formation of the Alps. This exploit, for the time, marked the beginnings of the alpinism such as one knows it today. Almost a year day for day after, the scientist undertakes to assemble itself, with 19 other people, at the top.

The first woman to reach the top is Marie Paradis on July 14th, 1808 but, of its own consent, it is “ trailed, drawn, carried ” by the guides. The second female rise is succeeded by Henriette d' Angeville, then equipped with a dress, on September 4th, 1838. The first winter rise is made by the English Isabella Stratton on January 31st, 1876.

The first fatal accident and the creation of the Company of the guides

The first fatal accident took place in 1820, during the tenth rise. This forwarding was reported by Alexandre Dumas which collected of it the account detailed near the guide Marie Coutet, survivor of forwarding: the customers are English colonel Anderson and Doctor Hamel, meteorologist of the emperor of Russia. After two nights and a day spent to the Large-Mules, the customers require to go up at the top in spite of an unfavourable weather and the guides, thirteen, do not dare to refuse to them. Equipped progresses in fresh snow which goes up to him to the knees. In fact, as the mountaineers follow the ones behind the others, their furrow cuts the Gust of wind and they end up starting a Avalanche which carries them. The three guides of head fall into a crack two hundred meters lower and, buried, they cannot be saved. Their remainders are found in 1861, preserved still well, with the bottom of the glacier of Bossons.

However, the sorrow and consternation push the guides to be linked the year following the drama. May 9th, 1823, a proclamation of the House of Commons of Turin, approved by Charles-Felix of Savoy, makes official the creation of the Compagnie of the guides of Chamonix. The articles provide that the traveller is led on the mountains by guides of first class which have experience and the contact necessary. The second class is consisted guides of less experiment which work especially like carriers; finally a third category, that of the candidate-guides learning the trade.

Today, the Company counts more than 150 professional members, guides and guides.

The Vallot refuge

The first true scientific studies of the top of the Mount Blanc were led on ordering of the botanist and meteorologist Joseph Vallot at the end of the 19th century. This last wanted to remain several weeks in the vicinity of the top and it made carry out the construction of a refuge into hard.

Today, this refuge does not accommodate any more the hikers. It can however be used as rescue station. It is a true small house, including/understanding all that is necessary to spend one night: chimney, stove, small kitchen, reserve of wood. One can discover also there the material of meteorology of Joseph Vallot.

The Jansen observatory

In 1891, Jules Jansen, academician of sciences, considers the construction of an observatory at the top to take measurements there on the solar spectrum. Gustave Eiffel decides to carry out the execution of the project, on the condition of finding foundations solid. Preliminary explorations are launched to find a point of anchoring under the direction of Swiss engineer Imfeld, who drills 15 meters under the summit cap. It does not meet any stony element. Disappointed, Eiffel gives up.

The observatory despite everything is built in 1893; it rests on jacks intended to compensate for the possible movements of the ice. The whole functions more or less until in 1906, when the building starts to lean seriously. The operation of the jacks makes it possible to compensate for the plate. But, three years later, two after the death of Jansen, a crack opens under the observatory, which is abandoned. It disappears in the ices and only the turret is saved in extremis .

Shipwrecked men of 1956 and the creation of group of alpine gendarmerie (PGHM)

In December 1956, two young mountaineers, Jean Vincendon, a Parisian young person 24 years, and François Henry, a Belgian young person 22 years, has like project the winter rise of the Mount Blanc by the spur of Brenva. They prepared their forwarding well but they will encounter a succession of bad lucks and the choices which they will make will be dramatic, more especially as the prolonged bad weather is exceptional.

They leave on December 22nd, 1956. At the beginning of their rise, the weather becomes bad and the mountaineers decide to give up, when they cross on the slopes one their heroes, Italian Walter Bonatti. This meeting will encourage them to continue their rise, but the storm which settles blocks them on a Sérac in edge of the Large Plate.

Long a five day old martyrdom starts for them, followed to the binoculars since the top of Brévent and to the telescope since Chamonix. More than two hundred journalists run and all France and Belgium follow the martyrdom of the two young mountaineers. The professionals of the mountain declare on December 26th: One will not risk our lives for these imprudent! To want to make Brenva in winter is pure madness . However, benefitting from a short lull, a Helicopter Sikorsky 58 of the French Army, with two pilots and two rescuers first-aid workers, tries to save them but is crushed. The two rescuers first-aid workers take the décison to save in priority the pilot and the copilot, little aguerris at the high mountain, and they take them along towards the Vallot refuge. Before leaving, they transfer the two young mountaineers in the fuselage from the apparatus, some food and of the Benzédrine gives them to help them not to fall asleep.

But the storm settles and all new forwarding is made impossible. On their side, the authorities balk to engage of the average important soldiers to save the two imprudent young people whereas the quota is engaged in the Guerre of Algeria. January 3rd, 1957, the authorities state to give up the helps and announce to the families the end of this adventure. This business will shake the world of the mountain because it remains the symbol of a failure, that of the community of the guides which failed in the duty sacro-saint of the help .

Finally, on March 20th, 1957, the caravan of help discovers the bodies of the two mountaineers in the helicopter. The Company of the guides of Chamonix is shown finger, however the guides had on several occasions already drawn the alarm bell by stressing that always more amateurs mountaineers they was also always more accidents and that they could not face any more. The polemic which follows this drama and the tergiversations of the civil authorities and military are at the origin of the professionalisation of the helps and the creation of PGHM (Group of alpine gendarmerie). In 1958, the authorities decide creation of an professional organization of mountain rescue entrusted to the gendarmerie and CRS under the authority of the prefect. The first group made up of a dozen gendarmes is installed in Chamonix.

Exploits

Some dates marked the conquest of the Mount Blanc:

  • on August 8th, 1786, Jacques Balmat and the doctor Michel Paccard carry out the first rise of the Mount Blanc.

  • on July 14th, 1808, Chamoniard the Marie Paradis is the first woman at the top of the Mount Blanc.
  • the January 31st, 1876, the first rise winter is carried out by English the Isabella Stratton.
  • on February 11th, 1914, Agénor Parmelin is the first aviator to fly over the solid mass.
  • In February 1929, Marguette Bouvier carries out the first downhill run by -40°C, with the guide Armand Charlet.
  • on June 23rd, 1960, the aviator Henri Giraud is posed on the top of the Mount Blanc on “a 30 meters length ground”.
  • In 1972, Morand traverses the distance between the refuge of Tasting and the top in the motor bike.
  • on June 24th, 1973, Sylvain Saudan carries out the first downhill run of the south-western face.
  • on July 21st, 1990, Switzerland Pierre-Andre Gobet carries out the rise at the beginning of Chamonix in 5:10 ' 14 return ticket.
  • on August 13rd, 2003 with 13:30, seven French parapentists carried out a first while being posed at the top of the Mount Blanc: five of them had started from Planpraz to: 1900 meters of altitude, on the other side of the valley of Chamonix, another had started from Rochebrune in Megève and the last of Samoëns. They benefitted from climatic conditions due to the heat wave which enabled them to carry out their exploit while passing by the needle of Knitting (: 3600 meters), then benefitting from exceptional thermics to go up until: 5200 meters.

Protection of the Mount Blanc

The site of the Massif of Mont Blanc is the subject of a project of classification to the World heritage of UNESCO as “a single exceptional site in the world” and as high cultural place, birthplace and a symbol of the Alpinisme. This project is not shared by all and should be the subject of joint requests of the three French governments, Italian and Switzerland.

But the Mount Blanc is one of the most visited tourist sites planet and of this fact it is in danger. Association Blanc Pro-mount published in 2002 the book the black slope of the Mount Blanc which exposes the current problems and futures which are posed to preserve the site in the state.

The threshold of surfrequentation of the Mount Blanc is reached, with 300 to 400 departures per day in summer. At the time of the top of the National council of the mountain which was held with Sallanches, end August 2006, it was estimated that: 25000 with: 30000 people launched out in 2005 to the conquest of the Mount Blanc. With the opening of the new markets (Russia, China, India), it is: 50000 with: 100000 people who could try the adventure tomorrow, the figure of: 200000 having even been advanced. These prospects are nightmarish for the defenders of the site and certain political officials of the valley, like the mayor of Saint-Gervais-the-Baths, commune on which is located the Mount Blanc. At the time of the summer 2003, with the dryness and an increased frequentation of the site, several tens of tons of refuse and waste various were left by the mountaineers who camped in the sector of the refuge of Tasting.

According to Jean-Marc Peillex, the mayor: “ It was more of the WC with open sky than a glacier. One is however in a classified site where, according to the law of 1930, the camp-site is prohibited. And one lets despite everything tens of mountaineers settle and pollute our water tank of tomorrow. ”

According to the guard of the refuge: “ These people who sleep in tents are in foreigners majority, have few means and cannot inevitably treat to the 25 euros of the night in refuge. Then they camp sometimes several days while waiting for a favorable crenel weather. It there of has which is respectful mountain, which goes down again their waste to the refuge, come in our toilets and others which give up their dustbins on this impromptu camp-site. When one goes up up there, one can see traces of urine everywhere in snow, of the excrements… whereas one thinks of being in a pure and preserved mountain. ”

The mayor of Saint-Gervais-the-Baths proposes the installation of a license of rise - as that is done in the Nepal -, whose delivery would be related to the number of places available in the refuges of Tasting - which will be increased with the construction of a new building - and russet-red Head. However certain mountaineers, of which some very known, are against the idea of this license of rise, which would be contrary with their freedom. According to the president of the guides: “ the mountain must remain a space of freedom… Each one must be able to reach the unconstrained tops financial. Many colleagues never would undoubtedly have become guides if such a regulation had existed ”, and celebrates it mountaineer, Christophe Profit, request even the removal of the refuges: “ Because if people plant their tent up there, it is because there is a lodging in the vicinity. Without refuge, the problem would be regulated. ”

Economy

Regional financial repercussions

Tourism generated by the surge of mountaineers, and in spite of the problems generated by the surfrequentation, brings direct economic consequences to the area, which compensate for the maintenance costs of the installations (refuges, etc) and of rescues of urgencies.

Various formulas make it possible to make the rise of the Mount Blanc with or without training course of acclimatization to altitude. The Company of the guides of Chamonix proposes the simple rise over two days for a tariff of 730 euros per anybody (be 2007), but does not count the additional expenses (ski lifts, half-board in refuge, etc). The Company of the Guides carries out a turnover of 2,8 million euros (including 2,5 million thanks to the Company of the Guide-Voyages), corresponding to: 8000 day's works.

The activities of the Compagnie of Mont Blanc extend on all the solid mass but are revealing top. It was created in 2000 to gather the skiables fields various companies of the valley of Chamonix and to amalgamate all the ski lifts of the surroundings. It employs 215 people (up to 260 with the seasonal workers). Its activities go from the souvenir shop to the exploitation of the ski lifts and the skiables fields while passing by the exploitation of restaurants. Its sales turnover 2004 is of 54,5 million euros.

The mountain also brings indirect economic consequences, with a dynamization of the area, for example with the installation of many companies related to the Winter sports in the valley of Chamonix and the doubling of the number of marks and signs (Décathlon, Solomon, etc).

The label “Mount Blanc”

The label “Mount Blanc” is carrying, so much so that companies without apparent direct link chose a similar name.

Since 1906, the German company Montblanc ( International Montblanc GMBH ) markets initially Stylo S, then watches, Maroquinerie, Lunette S and Parfum S. the mark is deposited. The symbol most extremely of the mark proves to be incontestably the white star. Number 4810 is also a recurring element.

The crêmes serves Mont Blanc are manufactured by the dairy of Chief-of-Bridge (Manche), repurchased by Activa Capital in 2003 with Nestlé. The company also proposes since 2006 frozen gourds and sticks.

The Mount Blanc in cultural works

With the cinema and on television

  • Documentary: Earth, its face of Jean-Luc Prévost - ED. National company of French television, 1984, series Haroun Tazieff tells its ground, vol. 1. It presents the west-east crossing of the Mount Blanc which it formerly made in company friends scenario writers.
  • Film Hefty fellow Princess : with the foot of the Mount Blanc, Tom, a eight year old child, seeks to find his mother, missing five years before by seeking the wreck from an Indian plane which was crushed in 1950, the Malabar Princess .
  • Film First of cord : Pierre Servettaz is a young candidate guides, but an accident will oppose its projects of career. In spite of that, it will make very to arrive at its ends…
  • Film-TV Premier of cord .

In the literature

Personalities and the Mount Blanc

Mary Shelley in holiday in 1816 with Cologny close to Geneva, in company of her husband and their mutual friend Lord Byron, discovered the alpine mountains which offered to its feather so much occasions to paint landscapes which force admiration. The Massif of Mont Blanc was very at side and its presence is real in its major work Frankenstein , when it describes: the furious howling of the river (… ') the chasms (...) the immense mountains (...) revealed in these places the presence of forces evoking that of the any power (...) , the prestigious giants of the Alps (… are…) pyramids and of the white domes and étincelants (...) another world, habitat of an unknown species of us.

George Sand come to Savoy in 1836 accompanied by his/her companion Franz Liszt and by the scientist and philosopher Genevese Adolphe Pictet traversed the Vallée of Arve and crossed the Col of Montets, it begins its description, then lets spin its imagination in Métaphore S: the potato is the single richness of this part of Savoy. The peasants think that by establishing a layer of smoke on the average area of the mountains, they intercept the air of the higher areas and preserve of his attack the bottom of the throats (...) this line of fire, established like signals throughout the ravine, offered to me in the middle of the night a splendid spectacle. They bored red spots and columns of black smoke the money vapor curtain where the valley was entirely plunged and lost. Above fires, above smoke and the fog, the chain of the Mount Blanc showed one of these last granitic belts, black like ink and crowned of snow. These fantastic plans seemed to swim in the vacuum. On some summits which the wind had swept, appeared, in a pure and cold firmament, broad stars. These peaks of mountains, raising in ether a black and tightened horizon, made appear the stars étincelants. The eye strapping of the Bull, savage Aldébaran, rose above a dark needle, which seemed the ventilator of the volcano from where this infernal spark had just spouted out. Further, Formalhaut, bluish, pure star and melancholic person, dropped on a white summit and seemed a tear of compassion and mercy fallen from the sky on the poor valley, but ready to be seized in way by the perfidious spirit of the glaciers.

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