Mitanni

Mitanni (or Mittani and in the texts Assyrie NS Hanigalbat and Khanigalbat ) was a kingdom located at the north of the current Syria, about between the XVII E and the XIII E. The name was used later to indicate the area between the rivers Khabur and Euphrate at the time Néo-Assyrian. Mitanni was a state Féodal directed by a Noblesse of warlike origin. The population was made up of Hourrites (indigenous) and of Amurru (people speaking the Amorrite).

The kingdom of Mitanni extended, in the east, of Nuzi (today Kirkuk in Iraq) and of the Tigre, until Alep and with the area Nuhashshe (in the middle of the Syria) in the west. Its center was the valley Khabur, with two capitals: Taidu (or Taite ) and Washshukanni, called Ushshukana in the Assyrian texts ( Vasu-khani which wanted to say “mine of wealth” of Sanskrit, but could come from the Louvite vasu- ). The area allowed agriculture without artificial irrigation, the goat and sheep, cattle breeding. The climate was very similar to that of Assyrie.

Hurri, Mitanni/Maittani, and Hanigalbat

Mitanni seems to have been the original name of the kingdom. It possible, but is disputed, that Mitanni is the biblical Harran . The population was undoubtedly of origin Hourrite and the aristocracy Indo-aryenne. The name of the kingdom could also come to him from a possible founder of the name of Maitta (actually this kingdom was called “Maittani”).

No internal source reporting the history of Mitanni (i.e. Hanigalbat ) was found until now. Our knowledge of Mitanni comes mainly from texts Assyrie NS, Hittite S and Egyptian, as well as inscriptions found in the areas neighborhood, in Syria. It is often impossible to establish a chronology between the leaders of the various countries and cities, even less to establish to date with certainty the events. The similarity between linguistic, ethnic and political groups constitutes the principal factor making it possible to define the entity known under the name of Mitanni.

Annals Hittite S mention people called Hurri , located at the North-East of Syria. Annals of the reign of the king hittite Hattushili I, which unfortunately reached us only through posterior copies, mention an enemy of the city of Hurri . It was speculated that this term could have been in the place of KUR , “country”. The initial form of the name was probably Hurla . The Assyrian version akkadienne of the text translated Hurri by Hanilgalbat . The Assyrians used the Mitanni term, only after the fall of the political entity.

Egyptian sources use the term nhr , Naharina (of the word Akkadien for “river”). The name Mitanni or Maittani for the first time is found in the chronicles of the war of Syria (around 1480 av. J. - C.) of Amenemhet, contemporary of Aménophis Ier (1525-1504 av. J. - C.) and perhaps of its two successors (in the hieroglyphic form mtn ).

The names of the aristocracy of Mitanni reveal an Indo-Aryan origin. The population undoubtedly spoke a language Hourrite. She was deciphered starting from sources very few. A passage in hourrite in the Lettres of Amarna - usually written in Akkadien, the lingua franca of the time - indicates that the royal family of Mitanni also spoke hourrite.

It was shown that people carrying of the names in language hourrite were present in broad zones of Syria and the north of Raising which were clearly out of the known political entity of Assyrian under the name of Hanilgalbat. There does not exist any indication that these people regarded as members of the people hourrite, or owed allegiance with the political entity which was Mitanni. However, the term Auslandshurriter (“expatriates hourrites”) was used by German authors. With, there existed much of city-states in north of Syria and in Palestine which were directed by people having names in language hourrite. If one deduces from this fact that the population of these states was also hourrite, then it is possible that these cities belonged to a greater entity having a common identity hourrite. The differences between the dialects and let us panthéons them various areas would seem to indicate the existence of several distinct groups speaking the hourrite.

History

Formation of the kingdom

A “kingdom of Hourrites” is mentioned in the texts hittites dating from the end of the Period amorrite. The sovereigns Hattushili Ier and Mursili Ier, which carries out many forwardings in Syria of North, and even until in Babylonia between 1620 and 1595 (date of the catches of Alep then of Babylon by the Hittites) seem very worried by the power of this kingdom. There there would thus have as of the 17th century a powerful kingdom hourrites, which is however unknown by direct sources, and thus remains inaccessible. It would undoubtedly be centered on the triangle of the Khabur. Hourrites then became the dominant ethnos group of septentrional Syria.

It is not known if this kingdom is already that which is mentioned for the first time in a tomb Egyptian woman of the end of the 16th century like the " kingdom of Mitanni" , also usually called " kingdom of Hourrites". It is on the other hand certain that this one is formed in the current of the 16th century.

The sovereign of Mitanni was often mentioned like “king of the warriors hourrites”. This kingdom was centered on the area of the triangle of Khabur, where it is necessary to seek to locate its capital, Washshukanni, which was not found. One sought to identify it with the site of Such Fakhariya, which corresponds to the city of the name of Sikanni at the time médio-Assyrian. But in spite of the phonetic proximity between the name of the two cities, no level hourrite of importance was found there. The files of the sovereigns mitanniens are thus inaccessible for us. To reconstitute the history of this kingdom, it is necessary for us thus to be based on the information given by their vassal, in particular Alalakh and especially Nuzi, like by the sources of the large close kingdoms, like Hittites, the Assyrie NS, and also the Égyptiens, with the important found corpus with El Amarna, the capital of Akhenaton.

First king of Mitanni whose name is known, Shuttarna Ier wire of Kirta, one does not know anything. One knows that there existed by a seal with its name taken again by one as of its successors, Shaushtatar, which attests existence of a line of king mitanniens going up at least in the middle of the 16th century. The first king which one knows more things is Barattarna, which reigns at the beginning of the 15th century, evoked in texts as suzerain in the towns of Alalakh (in the inscription of Idrimi in particular) and of Nuzi. The kingdom of Mitanni is then already very powerful, and it gathers in a kind of confederation of many vassal kingdoms like Alep, Alalakh, Ugarit, Karkemish, Emâr, the Nuhasse, the Kizzuwatna, Arrapha, the Hana. Mitanni then extended its domination of the piémonts of the Zagros in the east to the Mediterranean to the west; Taurus in north, to the neighborhoods of Qadesh and of Hana in edge of the steppes syro-mésopotamiennes in the south.

The operation of the kingdom of Mitanni is very badly known in the absence of administrative files. It seems to be a kind of confederation dominated by the king of Mitanni, one of the “Large Kings” ( šarru rabu ) of the Middle East of second half of the 2nd millenium (as well as those of Egypt, of Babylon, of Hittites). The vassal kingdoms were to have a certain latitude in their internal businesses as appear to show it the files of Alalakh and Nuzi. It is apparently a system looser than that set up thereafter by the Assyrians, perhaps near to that which one knows for Hittites. The organization of the kingdom of Mitanni itself is impossible to apprehend, we have only scattered information, in very small quantity.

The fight against Egypt

The kingdom of Mitanni then will know some difficulties vis-a-vis Hittites brought by Tudhaliya Ier, and especially vis-a-vis the Egyptians. The latter, delivered invaders Hyksos come from Raising, they wish to take a revenge while going to fight the “Asian” people on their premises. The first Pharaons to affirm their claims on these areas are Ahmosis (1576-1526) and Amenhotep Ier (1546-1526), which arrives until Euphrate, but gains only successes of prestige without ensuring of real domination. After an absence during the regency of the queen Hatshepsout (C. 1499-1478). When his/her son Thoutmosis III (1504-1450) goes up on the throne, it wishes to restore its power in the Middle East. During the reign of his/her mother, Mitanniens restored their influence in the area. They foment a revolt against the Egyptians around the town of Qadesh. The Pharaon passes then to the offensive: initially, it takes Megiddo, then goes up towards Alep. It makes sure then the domination of the area around this city, and receives the tribute of the local sovereigns. Little time after, it goes against the area of Djahy and Qadesh. During a following campaign, Thoutmosis III takes hostages to ensure the calm one in the area. But it is not sufficient, and it must still conduct a campaign to take the town of Ullaza and to subject to the harbor cities phenicians. The new king mitannien Shaushtatar organized a resistance baited to the invader, but it cannot from now on avoid direct confrontation any more. While Thoutmosis III seizes Qatna, Mitanni prepares the response. In spite of that, the Pharaon passes Euphrate, goes up towards Karkemish, before returning towards the Oronte. Hourrites are however far from being overcome. Thoutmosis III must still face Shaushtatar in Naharina, and demolishes it in Alep. But the area remains unsubdued: the Egyptians must still return in the area the following years, vis-a-vis Djahi, and in the cities phenicians, then Qadesh. Many cities, even in Anatolia where the Pharaon did not penetrate, pay him tribute. But the seventeen campaigns of Thoutmosis III did not reach Mitanni as lets it appear such a vice of energy. In its role of resistant, this kingdom knew to hold good, and to gather around him the cities of Syria and Raising prompt to rise against the invader. Amenhotep II (1450-1425) still intervenes in the area. Initially in Qadesh and in the Naharina, then in Niya, where Mitanniens gain a victory which enables them to restore their influence in Naharina.

The fight against Hittites

After this countryside, the situation changes. The relations between the two powers become friendly. Artatama Ier and Thoutmosis IV (1425-1417), and Shuttarna II and Amenhotep III (1417-1379) are exchanged many present and tie family ties. A limit of zones of influences is fixed: Mitanniens in Syria and Egyptians in Palestine. This bringing together has two primary reasons. Initially the exhaustion of the two kingdoms after these years of conflicts, and the emergence of a new power: Hittites. Tudhaliya Ier (C. 1450-1420) benefitted from the conflict between Mitanni and Egypt to encroach on the positions of the first, its direct neighbor. He is even parvenu to make sure temporary control of Alep. This threat changes the foreign policy of Mitanni, although initially it is rather weak, and that Hittites are also engaged in hard conflicts in Anatolia, which reduces the weight that they make weigh on Hurrites. The king Hattushili II, which reigns little of time, is even made overflow by Artatarma Ier in Kizzuwatna. Tudhaliya II succeeds in restoring its influence on Kizzuwatna, and signs a treaty of alliance with its king Shunashshura II. His/her son Arnuwanda Ier seizes this kingdom then, and pushes back Hurrites. He must however give up territories more in the east with Shuttarna II.

The situation is degraded then because of appearance of this new power: the king of Amurru, Abdi-Ashirta, seeks alliance hittite to free itself from the Egyptian domination. He gathers a coalition around him, and takes his independence, which threatens Mitanni directly. In Washshukanni, a coup d'etat occurs then: Artashumara, the successor of Shuttarna II is assassinated, and the instigator of the revolt, Tuhi, takes the regency of the kingdom. But it is finally Tushratta, probably him also the son of Shuttarna II, which restores the situation by seizing the power. It Marie then her Tadu-Hebat daughter with Amenhotep III to secure its alliance. This disturbed situation did not serve Hourrites too much because Hittites knew a period of retreat in parallel. The conflict begins again between Tushratta and Tudhaliya III, at which took refuge Artatama, a rival for the succession on the throne mitannien. It directs against him a coalition around the Ishuwa (area around Milid), and succeeds in putting it in failure.

Tudhaliya III, which must face a catastrophic situation, is détrôné by his/her son Suppiluliuma Ier about 1380. This sovereign is largely above his contemporaries: Tushratta does not have the same means, and is only slightly supported by the Pharaon Amenhotep IV/Akhenaton, which goes up on the throne about 1380. Artatama remains present in the entourage of Suppiluliuma, which will seek to do it king of Mitanni to thus be able to make sure the domination of this kingdom. After having devoted the first decade of its reign to restore the situation with its advantage in Anatolia, it tackles the areas bordering the Mediterranean, and takes Alep, which becomes its vassal. Tushratta cannot react, and avoids direct confrontation, preferring to foment a revolt around the large cities of the area. But, rather than to go to attack the rebels, Suppiluliuma decides to be caught some directly in Mitanni. It directs its troops towards Ishuwa, through the Alshe, and penetrates directly in the middle of the Hanigalbat. Tushratta flees, and leaves its Washshukanni capital without defense. Suppiluliuma seizes some and plunders it. It melts then on the united cities and subjects them. Mitanniens are overcome on all the levels and considerably weakened: only Karkemish remains their vassal.

Decline and end of Mitanni

Continuous Suppiluliuma on its impetus, towards the vassal cities of Egypt of Toutankhamon, which does not react more than his/her Akhenaton father. It subjects Amurru where reign Aziru, the son of Abdi-Ashirta, which had constituted a kingdom independent and aggressive towards its neighbors, and the town of Ugarit. Then it benefits from an attack mitannienne against Karkemish, which had revolted, and seizes the city finally where it establishes one of its sons as king. It pushes back then a weak Egyptian attack. Tushratta is assassinated shortly after by one of its sons. But at this point in time a new bounce occurs: the alarm clock of Assyrie. The old power, a long time vassal from Hourrites, benefitted from their weakening to go independent, and to become a threat at once. Its king Assur-uballit Ier intervenes in Mitanni. Artatama (II) and its son Shuttarna buy his support for finally going up on the throne of Mitanni. But Suppiluliuma, although old ally of Artatama, does not see it same eye, and supports Shattiwazza, the son of Tushratta. Hittite will be however of a weak support, because the situation in its country is disturbed. Shattiwazza however succeeds in taking Harran and Washshukanni, before Assur-uballit intervenes and pushes back it. Mitanni is then divided into two: in the west, Shattiwazza supported by Hittites of the king Arnuwanda II and with the west Shuttarna III supported by Assyrian Assur-uballit I. This last is in fact the true Master of this country. Benefitting from the weakness of Arnuwanda II, it takes Western Mitanni definitively, and completely subjects the kingdom which formerly dominated its ancestors.

Mitanni still survived some time under the aegis of Assyrie. The area was then subjected to the fights between Hittites de Mursili II and the Assyrians, which move back initially. But they react with the advent of Adad-nerari Ier (1308-1275), which threatens Muwatalli II seriously. The Assyrians decide to finish some definitively with Mitanni, located in the area where the conflict proceeds. Shattuara I set up by Assur-uballit I, then his/her son Wasashatta had followed one another on the throne of Hanigalbat. The last king, Shattuara II would have revolted against the Assyrian yoke, that from which profits Salmanazar Ier (1275-1245) to put definitively fine at the kingdom of Mitanni, at the same time as it pushes back Hittites of the area.

Hanigalbat, Assyrian Province

Part of the population was off-set. Administrative documents mention barley allocated with " men déracinés" , off-set of Mitanni. For example, the governor of the town of Nahur, Meli-Sah received on behalf of Shuduhu of the barley intended to be distributed to the deportees " like seed and food for their oxen and them-mêmes" . The Assyrians built a series of fortifications at the border with the hittites along the Balikh.

Mitanni was then directed by the " large-vizir" Assyrian Ili-ippada, a family member royal, who took the title of king ( šarru ) of the Hanigalbat. It resided in the Assyrian administrative center of Such Sabi Abyad, built little time before. The Assyrians had not only one political and military control, but also a seizure on the trade. Indeed, no name hourrite appears in the private files at the time of Salmanazar.

Under Tukulti-Ninurta Ier (towards 1243 av. J. - C. - 1207 av. J. - C.), there were still many deportations of Hanilgalbat (Mitanni) towards Assur, probably because of the construction of a new palate. The royal inscriptions mention the invasion of Hanigalbat by a king hittite who could correspond to a new rebellion or a support for an invasion hittite. It is possible that the Assyrian cities were ransacked at that time. Destroyed levels which cannot unfortunately be dated with precision were found at the time of the excavations. Such Sabi Abyad, seat of the Assyrian government at the time of Salmanasar, was abandoned between 1200 av. J. - C. and 1150 av. J. - C..

Under Assur-Nerari III, the Mushku and other tribes invaded Hanilgalbat which returned never again in the Assyrian bosom. Hourrites were still Master of Katmuhu and Paphu.

Material culture

Archeological sites

There exists little of archeological sites located in the central zone of the kingdom of Mitanni which have archaeological levels going back to this period. That is explained by the fact why few sites was still excavated in the valley the Khabur, and also because the Assyrians refitted the majority of the cities which they invested after being seized about it. Much thus remains still to be made.

The study of Mitanni suffers owing to the fact that none the capitals of this kingdom were discovered, or at least that no known site could be identified with certainty as being one of them. For Washshukanni, there are a supposed time that Such Fakharihé carried the ruins of this city, but that proved without base. For Taidu, one proposed to locate it with Such Brak or Such Al-Hamidiya. Other sites of the central zone of the kingdom of Mitanni which have archaeological levels of this period are Such Mohammed Diya, Such Mozan, Such Barri or Such Sheikh Hamad.

Almost none of these sites delivered shelves dating from the time of Mitanni. Only two legal shelves going back from the reigns to Artashumara and Tushratta testify to the acctivity to the scribes to Mitanni on their own land.

One knows better certain sites located apart from the heart of Mitanni, which were dominated by this kingdom: Ebla, Alalakh in the west, Such Rimah and especially Nuzi and Kurruhani in the east, which are located in the kingdom of Arrapha, inhabited by of Hourrites.

Structure

Little of excavations concerning the kingdom of Mitanni which were carried out, one can raise some notable buildings.

Such Brak includes/understands a palate dating from the 16th century (level VI), which presents a single organization in its kind. It is organized around a central court in the south, which is a large part of reception; in north is ue another large court; there was probably an upper floor for the residence. One found there objects out of glass, earthenware, vases out of alabaster, furniture and two shelves in hourrite. A temple is next to this building. Some residences of this time were also excavated.

Such Mohammed Diya has a level of the time mitanienne, including/understanding various dwellings, as well as a small temple. As in Such Brak, this period is marked by two successive destruction.

With Such Al-Hamidiya, a level of recent Bronze at summer put at the day, with a complex palatial made up of a big room, with two anterooms; it is altered at the time of the establishment of the Assyrians.

Craft industry

Ceramics characteristic of the levels of the time of Mitanni is called “ceramic of Nuzi”, of the name of the first site where it was identified. It is present into High Mésopotamie at the beginning of second half of the 2nd millenium, succeeding the “ceramics of Khabur” of the paléo-Babylonian time. It is a ceramics of quality, at dark bottom, with of painted white reasons, geometrical form or animalists. The forms are varied little, and rather simple: earthenware jars, jugs, plates, goblets in particular.

The other types of ceramics attested on the sites mitanniens are basic, widespread in all the parts of the sites, as well at easiest as at poorest. They are generally not painted, of varied enough styles and forms.

Some lucky finds, in particular to Such Brak and Nuzi, provided objects out of glass, of which the techniques of clothes industry progress at this period, the craftsmen work out glazes objects, out of earthenware.

Possible bonds with the Sanskrit and the Indo-Aryan ones

Certain experts tried to make correspond the divinities venerated by the inhabitants of Mitanni to the vedic divinities and to connect the names of the aristocracy to Indo-Aryan roots. In a treaty between Hittites and Mitanni, the gods Mitra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya (Ashvins) are called upon. The text of Kikkuli on the training of the horses contains technical terms such as aika ( eka , one), will tera ( tri , three), panza ( pancha , five), satta ( SAPTA , seven), Na ( nava , nine), vartana ( vartana , round). Another text shows the following correspondences: babru ( babhru , brown), parita ( palita , gray), and will pinkara ( pingala , red). Their principal festival was the celebration of the Solstice ( vishuva ), current practice in the majority of ancient civilizations. The warriors of Mitanni were called marya', which has the same direction in Sanskrit.

Interpretations of the royal names of Mitanni starting from the Sanskrit make correspond Shuttarna to Sutarna (" good soleil"), Baratarna with Paratarna (" large soleil"), Parsatatar with Parashukshatra (" lord with the hache"), Saustatar with Saukshatra (" wire off Sukshatra , the good seigneur"), Artatama with " more droit" , Tushratta with Dasharatha (" having ten chars" ?), and, finally, Mattivaza with Mativaja (" whose richness is prière"). Certain experts think that the kings were not the only ones to have Indo-Aryens names. A great number of other names resembling the Sanskrit were discovered among the inscriptions and files of this area. It should however be noted that one often tests, wrongly, to interpret the ancient names where that does not take place to be.

It was often suggested that the original aristocracy of Mitanni which bore Indo-Aryens names, had emigrated of north and subjected the natives hourrites of Syria who were not Indo-Aryens, although the historical evidence is very few. Some tried to connect the name M (A) itanni with Madai (Mèdes), of Indo-Iranian which had an empire later in the west a few centuries. As the names suggest it, the Indo-Aryan ones and the Indo-Iranian ones (Perses) were close linguistic groups. Moreover, certain Kurdish sources affirm that the name of one of their clan, Mattini, comes from Mitanni. Archeologists attested of a parallel striking with the diffusion in Syria of a certain type of pottery associated with the culture Kuro-Araxes, however the time that they allot for this event is older than that lasting which Mitanni would have arrived. As for Aryan vedic speaking the Sanskrit, it seems that they started to emigrate in India about the same time (perhaps around 1500 av. J. - C.).

Eusèbe de Césarée, writing at the 4th century and quoting fragments of Eupolemus, a Jewish historian of the second century BC whose writings from now on are lost, affirms that about the time of Abraham (towards 1700 av. J. - C.?), " the Armenians invaded Syriens" - what appears plausible, and would be the only historical reference of the possible invasion of the leading class of Mitanni of Indo-Aryenne origin, which in this time could not have been the current Armenians per , but which are probably originating in the same area, known later under the name of Arménie.

Sovereigns of Mitanni

Note: the dating is approximate, no certainty does not exist in this connection.

Cities

  • Amasakku, hiring unknown
  • Eluhat
  • Harran U, fortress
  • Hurra, perhaps close to Mardin
  • Irridu/Irritates, between Karkemish and Harran, perhaps Ordi or Such Bender
  • Kahat, Such Barri on the Jaghjagh
  • Katmuhu
  • Nabula, Girnavaz close to Nusaybin
  • Nahur
  • Pakar (R) IP (p) has
  • Paphu
  • Nuzi/u, Yorgan Tepe close to Kirkuk
  • Shuduhu, perhaps in the area of Khabur
  • Shuru, perhaps Savur in the north of Tur- 'Abdin
  • Sudu, fortress
  • Taidu, quoted royal, unknown hiring
  • Such Brak
  • Such Rimah
  • Such Sabi Abyad, seat of the Assyrian governor (unknown Assyrian name)
  • Urkesh, Such Mozan in the north of Syria, capital hourrite at the end of the 3rd millenium
  • Washshukanni, Ushshukana, on the higher course of the Khabur, perhaps Such Fecheriye or Such Hamukar

See too

Related articles

Sources

  • G. Wilhelm, “The Kingdom off Mitanni in Second-Millenium Upper Mesopotamia”, J. Sasson (to dir.), Civilizations off the Ancient Near East , New York, 1995, p. 1243-1254;
  • G. Wilhelm, The Hurrians , Warminster, 1989;
  • J.Freu, History of Mitanni , Paris, 2003;
  • A. Harrak, Assyria and Hanigalbat. With historical rebuilding off the bilateral relations from the middle off the 14th to the end off the 12 centuries BC , Hildersheim, Zurich, New York, 1987;
  • P. Pfälzner, Mittanische und Mittelassyrische Keramik: Eine chronologische, funktionale und produktionsökonomische Analysis , BATSH 1, Berlin, 1995;
  • E. Gaal, “The economic role off Hanilgalbat At the beginning off the Neo-Assyrian expansion”, in Hans-Jörg Nissen and Johannes Renger (éds.), Mesopotamien und the Seine Nachbarn. Kulturelle Politische und Wechselbeziehungen im Alten the East vom 4. (a) 1. Jahrtausend v. Chr. , Berlin, 1982, p. 349-354;
  • C. Kühne, “Politische Szenerie und international Beziehungen Vorderasiens um die Mitte of the 2. Jahrtausends VOR Chr. (zugleich ein Konzept der Kurzchronologie). MIT einer Zeittafel”, in Hans-Jörg Nissen and Johannes Renger (éds.), COp cit. , p. 203-264.
  • RF S. Starr, " Nuzi" , 2 T., Cambridge, 1937-1939;
  • Weidner, “Assyrian und Hanilgalbat”, in Ugaritica 6,1969;
  • Thieme, P., “The “Aryan Gods” off the Mitanni Treaties”, JAOS 80,1960, p. 301-317.

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