Mission Jesuit in China

The Jésuites arrived for the first time in China in 1582. Sent to spread the Gospel of Christ and to convert the nations, they go, during their two centuries of presence, to establish the bases of a solid Christendom.

Encouraged by the approach inculturée missionary launched by Alexandre Valignano, and understanding that they would be accepted in China only like wise, well-read men and scientists, Matteo Ricci and its successors initiated themselves in-depth with the language and Chinese civilization. Their scientific contributions also gave them prestige and same the doors of the imperial palace opened to them. Beyond a simple “strategy missionary” the Jesuits began to admire and appreciate the Chinese culture. The sympathy acquired near the authorities allowed work missionary in the campaigns. To the departure free of very forced bureaucratic and Roman they freely adapted message and Christian life to the Chinese sensitivity (catechesis, language, habits, architecture). Later, from the directives coming from the Propaganda Fide, going in a very restrictive direction were badly accepted. Fearing for the survival even of their Christian community (and the reactions political) of the Jesuits were opposed to it. The insoumission' of the Jesuits caused a sharp controversy in Europe which contributed to discredit that the order Jesuit at the end of the 18th century will know.

Their many letters, where shows through admiration and sympathy to the Chinese culture, circulated largely in Europe. Republished in collection of edifying and curious Lettres they had a great success and opened the Europe in China. These missionaries are the creators, to some extent, of the Sinologie. They also allowed the circulation of ideas and the discovery of another world.

Missionaries in China

The oldest traces of Christianity in Chinese civilization is the fact of Christians nestoriens 7th century, attested by a stele found in 1625 with Chang' year (Xi' An).

A first mission, Franciscain E, is present in China between the 13th century and the 16th century, during the Mongolian dynasty of Yuan. These had to leave when the dynasty was reversed.

The Society of Jesus

The organization of the order in Asia

The Mission Jesuit in the East is organized in Province S, each one directed by provincial. In the first times, all the Orient depends on the province of Goa. On this “province” the national missions, directed by a superior depend. Then one finds évêché S and Diocèse S. the organization evolves/moves with the enlarging and the extension of the territories open to the mission. For China, the entrance point and bases fold in the event of persecution, is the Portuguese territory of Macao.

There exists a system of inspection of the missions: The remote provinces are visited regularly by representatives of the provincial one. In addition, the missionaries are held to write reports/ratios and annual letters. These documents are used in-house, to evaluate completed work and to consider needs, but also compiled, for a publication with the public. Correspondences are also established with the European scientists and intellectuals. The missionaries are used thus as window on the East for Europe.

First mission Jesuit in China

The Jesuits, made in 1582, see following one another several emperors and especially the installation of a Manchu dynasty the head of China in 1644. Ming, Chinese dynasty, faced the Manchu dynasty Qing, which takes foot in China in 1644. Ming are pushed back towards the south and are definitively overcome in 1661. The attitude of the various emperors varies. The periods of tolerance and persecution alternate. The position is not either the same one vis-a-vis the Jesuits of the court, with the converted Chinese or the other missionaries in the campaigns.

The arrival of the Jesuits and first contacts

The first church of the Jesuits with Macao is a timber structure built about 1563.

January 23rd 1576, by the bubble Super Speculated Militantis Ecclesia , the pope Gregoire XIII sets up Macao in évêché Suffragant of Goa, having jurisdiction on the China and of the adjoining countries among whom Formosa, the Filipino and the Japan, which depended hitherto on Malacca, and it is the Jesuit Melchior Miguel Carneiro who is named by it the bishop.

The first classes of what will become the Collège Saint-Paul of Macao open in 1572 and in 1592 manpower reach already approximately two hundred pupils.

The period 1582 - 1610 corresponds on arrival in China and the installation of the method Ricci until death of this last. It is the meeting with civilization and the Chinese culture. It is as at this time as the first well-read men are converted. There is also much effort of publication and translation of Western books.

When the Jesuits arrive at Beijing in 1601, the Ming dynasty touches at its end. The empire is attacked at its borders in Mongolia and, at the same time, it must help the Korea to push back the attacks Japan eases. Moreover, among the Manchu , there are signs of agitation.

The expansion and the apogee of the Jesuit presence

Then, of 1610 with 1705, Christianity progresses slowly and the elements which will lead to the Querelle of the Rites set up.

The Jesuits gained in prestige thanks to their role in the diplomatic negotiation of the Traité of Nertchinsk as translators. This new prestige combines with that, on the plan of sciences, the Jesuits of the Office of astronomy of the imperial court. These elements allow creation in 1692 of the Edict of religious tolerance of Kangxi, second emperor of the Qing dynasty. it is also famous for its open-minded and its support for the intellectuals. This edict authorizes conversions with Christianity, cancels the preceding laws against the missionaries, and grants the right to build churches and to preach publicly. The Tribunal of the Rites recognizes with Europeans their merit in their work and devotion. Thus it does not agitate any more the people against doctrines considered in the past as dangerous. However this edict did not allow a conversion into mass.

This period marks also the beginning of the Querelle of the Rites. Several points of discord exist concerning the activities of the Jesuits in China, such as the translations, the uses and habits and what will give him its name: the place of the rites confucéens, in particular those concerning the old ones very venerated. Are habits or Superstition S even of the religious beliefs ?

In 1705, an incident with the Chinese emperor will lead at the end of the expansion of Christianity in China.

Decline and end of the order in China

Finally the period which goes from 1705 to 1773 mark a decline of the presence of the Jesuits. Several waves of persecution strike the missionaries and the converts, Christianity is classified among the “perverse and dangerous Secte S”. This period ends in the dissolution of the order.

The visit of the bishop Tournon, envoy of the Pope, does not like Kangxi, which sees like a threat the prerogative of the pope on the Christian spirits. It cancels the preceding edicts in favor of the Jesuits. The emperor also asks them to accept his interpretation in the good manners to include/understand the rites and ceremonies. The result of the visit is for the Jesuits the obligation to sign a ticket, piao . It means the recognition from the point of view of the emperor on the rites; if the missionary refuses it is expelled of China. But the Church threatens of excommunication the missionaries recognizing a compatibility between the catholic dogma and laughed them confucéens. The majority of the Jesuits accept it to remain. This confrontation reinforces the Chinese point of view according to which the foreigners must remain under the strict control of the emperor.

After this episode, control on the Jesuits increases considerably. The Kangxi emperor Yongzheng then Qianlong succeeds, which reigns of 1736 with 1796. It extends the borders of the Chinese empire, but is much firmer towards the Westerners, as the episode with the ambassador Mac Cartney shows it. It also continues persecutions against the Christians.

After the Quarrel of the Rites, the Jesuits are very badly perceived in Occident: they violated a papal order and to compromise the official dogma. The countries of Europe prohibit little by little the Jesuits for this heresy, the missions abroad are little by little abandoned, in particular those in China where had to be financed a high standard of living. Finally the Pope Clément XIV issues the end of the missions Jesuits with the Brief Dominus ac Redemptor in 1773. The Jesuits and the other missionaries also start to leave room with the merchants and the embassies, which are interested in another thing that with the hello of the heart of the Chinese. These themselves will be followed by new waves of missionaries.

Methods of the Jesuits: inculturation and controversies

At the beginning of the Chinese mission, the Jesuits try to apply the lesson drawn from the experiment of christianization to Japan. The principal conclusions are that it is essential to adapt to the local habits and practice or to remain neutral with respect to the authority. The importance of a good knowledge of the language is also proposed. The Jesuits adopt also Chinese names (whereas baptized Chinese receive a Christian name). The priority is given to comprehension and the translation. The Jesuits also spend time to describe the situation. He rather quickly notice the three “sects” already present. Moreover, the Confucianism seems to them to be the Chinese doctrines nearest to the Truth.

Costume

At the time of their arrival in China the Jesuits carry the costume of the Bonze S, according to the model of what is done in Japan. Enough quickly, towards 1594, Matteo Ricci asks for the authorization of pass to the costume of well-read man. This last would be more suited according to him for conversion and would avoid confusions. This choice is justified by several factors. First of all, the statute of the bonzes in China was not as good as with Japan and the Buddhist church is controlled by the Chinese State (just like other official religions). Then, he wants to avoid any confusion with any Buddhist sect. It is to be noticed that this change of costume is also done at the time when Ricci translates the Classiques into Latin. He seems to him whereas the role of well-read man is a better vector. It seemed also important to gain the popular regard and of the leading classes and thus to show an important social status, which implies the use of beautiful clothing in Soie, of Palanquin etc But these behaviors are perceived in Europe like an offense with humility by some.

The language problematic vector of conversion

In addition with the questions of habits and culture, the difficulty of the translation of the terms arises very quickly. If only the most direct example is taken, how the Jesuits can translate God into Chinese? How to find a term which cannot be confused with concepts or local superstitions? In Japan, there exist spelling-books and one can create new words. But for Chinese, how to add a new word, while avoiding recovering a different concept? This same problem is found for all the words with abstract, but quite precise significances. Close significances exist but they often come either from the Confucianisme, or of the Bouddhisme, which gives them quite particular connotations. These problems are besides one of the facets of the Quarrel of the Rites.

Conversion by the top

The Jesuits intend to convert China into passing by the conversion of the well-read men and the elites rather than by that of thousands of peasants. Indeed, they think that by converting the leaders, it is the whole people which will follow. All their efforts thus will be directed towards the leading classes on all the levels, of the emperor to the circles of well-read men. A method long to set up and whose results are not visible quickly. Moreover in the duration and vis-a-vis several sovereigns, of rather strong personality (beginning of the Manchu dynasty), the effort is to be started again unceasingly. This method is opposed to that other orders which try to convert the people directly, and which obtain good performances on the level of the number of converts, but which frequently undergoes the edicts of prohibitions. This second approach creates reactions of the Chinese government, which does not see an good eye preaching with the people. This difference will be also the source of conflicts between different the orders missionaries.

Science with the service of christianization

Another stratagem used by the Jesuits is to propose their scientific knowledge. It is besides for them only one simple means to show the superiority and the power of Christian God. “Celestial sciences” produce among Chinese a certain confusion between essence and the accessory. The Jesuits introduce the Chinese with Western sciences only by what they hope to use them like a means to convert the elites more easily. Whereas the Chinese group the two shutters of the lesson (religion and science), by giving a weight equal to both approches.

But these sciences must remain within the limits of what is compatible with the Christian vision of the world. This aspect can be found in astronomy when the Jesuits defended the Géocentrisme a long time, because the theory copernician contradicted preceding knowledge and the religious designs. One can wonder which effect had this injection of knowledge nouvelles.

In general, the level of knowledge was rather similar. And with the limits of the promotion of the true innovations one can wonder whether this contribution of knowledge accelerated or slowed down science chinoise.

Missionaries in the Academies well-read women

The Academies well-read women, shuyuan , are private kinds of Forum S, where the well-read men find themselves for discussions of philosophical or political range. They are independent and represent various tendencies. For Matteo Ricci, these Academies seem to be the ideal place to reach the well-read men and to introduce them with the Christian religion. The knowledge of Traditional is a kind of prérequis there, and Ricci has the sufficient luggage. It enters the play of the ideological debate. The Jesuits are then perceived like well-read men, and not of the missionaries. One can as note as that creates confusion bus of the Chinese think that the doctrines presented were created by themselves. Moreover, they are found in a context of ideological debates, where one does not expect that a Truth is presented such as it is. From its knowledge, Ricci can use the traditional texts to present and justify the Christian doctrines. What allows mutual exchanges of subtle arguments. It divides thus (surfaces some at least), the same reference marks. He plays with the contents of Traditional and proposes the passages which favor it and is unaware of the others discreetly. He tries to find bonds with Christianity, other Jesuits after him will make even their main argument of it: the Confucianism and the Traditional ones are only one bad interpretation of Christianity since one can find Christian symbols in Chinese civilization. This current of thought and research will be called figurist.

As the Jesuits notice very quickly that there is essential for them to remain discrete in China, they hide their goal of evangelization. This attitude will be reproached to them later. Moreover the details of the religion are not stated that to people already in right track to be converted, which adds an aspect esoteric additional. The Jesuits are accused of duplicity and to have hidden their real goal.

Do the well-read men whom they meet include/understand the real goal of the Jesuits? Some in any case denounce what they call vicious doctrines. There exists for example a collection of writings anti-Christians of eight volumes, the year 1639.

Chronology of the Jesuit presence in China

December 3rd 1552: Saint François Xavier dies on the island of Sancian, in waiting of a boat which would lead it on the Chinese continent.
1579 : Franciscain Pedro de Alfaro celebrates the first mass with Canton
1582: Ruggieri and Matteo Ricci enters to China, and settles initially in a secondary city.

1594 : The Jesuits adopt the dress of well-read men, Ricci finishes the translation of the Four Books
1597: Ricci is named higher Mission of China
1601: Prescribes imperial of Wanli ordering with Matteo Ricci to go up to Beijing and to present in person with gifts
1603: Baptism of Xu Guanqi (Paul), Chinese well-read man
1604: The Mission of China becomes independent of that of Macao
1610: Baptism of Li Zhizao, Ricci dies, Longobardo succeeds to him like superior, 2500 Christians in China

1615 : Authorization to use the traditional Chinese for the celebrations
1616: Report/ratio of the vice-minister of the Rites of Nankin, Shen That - the first persecution of Christianity in China
1617: Following the report/ratio, lawsuit of Nankin
1626: Discovered Stele Nestorienne
1633: The Dominican ones launch the offensive against the Jesuits, the latter would allow their converts the rites ancestors and Confucius
1642: The Jesuits build a church with Chongqing
1664: Oboi, the regent of Kangxi, makes imprison Adam Schall and the Christian astronomers for incompetence and treason.
1668 : Kangxi requires of Ferdinand Verbiest to check the calendars. This last finds errors. It is named director of the Office of Astronomy

1670 : In Europe, publication of Illustrated China of P. Kircher
1687: Five French Jesuits additional astronomers arrive at Beijing

1689 : The negotiations at the time of the Traité of Nertchinsk call upon the Jesuits as interpreters
1690: The Evêché of Beijing is created
1692: Antoine Thomas obtains from the emperor Kangxi the edict of tolerance of Christianity

1701 : 8 missionaries moreover arrive at Beijing
1705: Arrival in China of the pontifical legate Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon (sent by Clement XI) to evaluate the orthodoxy of the “Chinese Rites” (especially the rite of the “Veneration deConfucius and the ancestors” regarded as purely social by the Jesuits). And tact lack Tournon label offends the emperor seriously.

1707 : Decree of Nankin: Tournon prohibits the Chinese Rites (Prohibition confirmed by Clément XI in 1715, in spite of a direct intervention of Kangxi)
1720: Second papal envoy, Mezzabarba, to try to soften the position: some concessions are made which revive the controversy without obtaining the favor of the emperor.
1721 : The Christian missionaries are banished empire. Only the scientists and scientists with the service of the court can remain.
1724 : The Qing government makes Christianity illegal and declares it in the perverse category “sect and sinister doctrines”
1735: Publication of the Description of China and Tartarie of Jean-Baptiste Of the Dump
1735: Qianlong becomes emperor - negative attitude with respect to the Christians
1742: Benoît XIV revokes the concessions made by Mezzabarba.
1746 & 1755: Persecutions against the Christians are growing
1773: The Society of Jesus is removed by Clément XIV. Joseph-Marie Amiot obtains that the work of the French Jesuits in Beijing is supported by the king of France.
1793 : Death in Beijing of Joseph-Marie Amiot, last survivor of the Mission Jesuit in China.
1814 : The Company is restored everywhere in the world by Pie VII
1842: The Jesuits return to China: two French Jesuits arrive at Shanghai
1903: Opening of the University Dawn in Zi-ka-Wei (Shanghai).
1939 : Following consultations started since 1935, Pie XII approves the Chinese Rites .

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