Meteorology of space

The Météorologie of space is a recent discipline which is interested in the physical status and phenomenologic space medium. It aims to observe, supervise and predict the impact of the interplanetary disturbances (which can be of solar origin or not) on the Planet S and their environment, on the living beings and the technological devices. Some of these impacts can have consequences economically important: artificial satellite inoperative even destroyed, irradiation of the Astronauts and the passengers on board of airliners, disturbance of the positioning by satellite, disturbances on the distribution networks of electricity, etc This discipline marks a rupture with traditional space research, because the stress is laid here on the interaction between different mediums, energy of the solar heart to the earth's crust, and on the installation of an operational service of forecast, as in terrestrial Météorologie.

Any share of the Sun

The Sun is not the immutable star which one believes. Like many star S, it has a cyclic activity (the solar Cycle) whose periodicity is approximately 11 years. For the periods of maximum of activity, the number of sunspots is raised more and it occurs more solar eruptions. Such an eruption can, in a few minutes, to release energy being equivalent to one month of human production. The addition of solar activity also results in the ejection in the space of great quantities of matter. The eruptions are accompanied by Rayonnement S intense in the Ultra-violet, in X-rays and Ondes radio. Lastly, the Sun can emit beams of particles (Proton S, electron S…) of high energy. When such disturbances are directed towards the Earth, they come to disturb the whole terrestrial environment in the minutes or the hours which follow their emission. All the layers of our terrestrial environment are concerned: since Magnetosphere (the magnetic cavity which surrounds the Earth with more than 1000 km of altitude), the Ionosphère (the conducting layer located between 100 and approximately 1000 km, and which plays a crucial role in the transmissions of the Ondes radio), at the neutral atmosphere (less than 100 km), and until in the Lithosphère.

Physical mechanisms

The meteorology of space is a complex science, which utilizes a great number of physical mechanisms. Almost any share of the Sun, but the conditions of the space medium are also influenced by the cosmic Rayonnement, of extra-solar origin.

There are three principal vectors by which the Sun can affect the space medium:

by emitting electromagnetic radiation . The Sun emits electromagnetic Ondes on a broad beach of wavelengths energy of the Ondes radio until the X-rays and even with the gamma rays. The intensity is however strongest in the wavelengths corresponding to the visible light, where it follows closely the law of the black Corps. The variability of solar radiation is very low in the visible field. One observes less than 0,5% of relative variation on a solar cycle. It grows then quickly when one approaches the small wavelengths, exceeding 100% in lower part of 120 Nm and even 1 000% in lower part of 30 Nm. The solar eruptions appear indeed by a fast intensification of the radiation in the range of the ultraviolet rays and X, but also in radio waves. The image of right-hand side represents the Sun seen in extreme ultra-violet (wavelength of 19,5 Nm) at the time of a strong eruption which saturates part of the detector.
These electromagnetic waves spend 8 minutes to reach the Earth, where they are mainly absorbed by the high atmospheric layers and more particularly by the Ionosphère, which is some thus modified. However the ionosphere plays a particular part in the radio wave propagation, and influences also the state of the sub-bases (Stratosphère).

en emitting particles of great energy . The solar eruptions generally cause to accelerate elementary particles charged (Proton S, electron S, helium cores…) until high energies, easily being able to exceed 1 MeV. These particles are propagated then in interplanetary space, while following the lines of magnetic field. They are sometimes accelerated more by the crossing of shock waves. These particles spend 30 minutes to 1 a.m. to reach the Earth. They fortunately hardly penetrate inside the Magnétosphère because the Terrestrial magnetic field deviates them and acts thus as shielding. Only the most violent eruptions can be detected on the level of the ground (especially with high latitudes) by the arrival of Neutron S resulting from nuclear reactions in the atmosphere. It is about Ground Level Enhancements (GLE), of which one of most powerful occurred on January 20th, 2005. The image of right-hand side illustrates the increase in the flow of protons observed at the time of an other violent eruption, which occurred on November 2nd, 2003. As the vertical scale is logarithmic curve, flow increases by a factor 100 to 1.000 during the eruption. Such eruptions are more frequent for the periods of strong solar activity and shortly after. The last period of strong activity extended from 2000 to approximately 2004.
Particles of high energy also meet in the radiation belts (belts of radiation, or Van Allen radiation belts), an annular area which surrounds the Earth and in which particles can remain trapped during months.
These particles penetrate deeply in the matter and can with long causing considerable damage. The most violent eruptions can kill an astronaut in a few minutes, if this last is not with the shelter.

en emitting bubbles of plasma , and in particular of the Ejections Coronales de Masse (CME). These ejections of plasma, whose mass can reach a billion tons, are emitted regularly by the Sun. They are however ten times more frequent in period of strong activity, where there can be several per day of them. A CME directed towards the Earth puts one to two days to reach it. By running up against the Magnetosphere, it breaks fragile balance between the solar magnetic field and the geomagnetic field. This imbalance starts a feedback path. One then speaks about Magnetic storm, which appears by fluctuations of the geomagnetic field. One of the consequences is acceleration towards Earth of particles resulting from the Magnétosphère (and not of the Solar wind, sometimes how one intends it to say). The interaction of these particles with the high layers of the atmosphere generates famous the polar lights. The magnetic storms are accompanied by many other effects, of which intensification of the currents in the Ionosphère, with magnetic latitudes ranging between 65 and 75 degrees of latitude.

The majority of the mechanisms above are bound, but do not occur inevitably simultaneously. It is in that the meteorology of space is a complex science, whose certain aspects are still badly included/understood and whose forecast still often has an empirical character. The figure opposite illustrates inter-connected them between the various physical mechanisms. Two main issues are here the disparity of the scales of time over which the phenomena (second at the years) and the extent of the space medium occur that it would be necessary to probe for better including/understanding these mechanisms of interaction.

Difficulties inherent in the meteorology of space

The forecast of the conditions of the space medium remains a difficult task. One can recognize a area activates Sun likely to give place to an eruption. To predict the intensity and the hour of this eruption takes up on the other hand challenge.

Contrary to the Meteorology known as traditional where the scientists have a vast network of weather stations covering the whole of planet, very little information is available for the meteorology of space. The space probe SoHO, located at the Not of Lagrange L1, observes the Sun permanently and gives, inter alia, of invaluable information on the ejections of mass coronales using the Coronographe S LASCO. It is thus possible, with more or less of difficulty and more or less of precision, to determine the characteristics (speed, direction of propagation, cut) ejections of mass coronales when they are still located near the Sun: at the time of their departure . The ejections of mass coronales travel between the Sun and the Ground in approximately three days. During the near total of this period, no information is available: The scientists are like blind .

It is only when disturbance arrives at level not of Lagrange L1 (not located between Ground and Sun) where find several satellites, that one can know if there will be impact or not, and to quantify the effect. The disturbance spends then less than one hour to reach the Earth. It thus remains little of time to take measures.

When the ejection of mass coronale reaches the Point Lagrange L1, several satellites record various information such as the density, speed, the magnetic field and the temperature. Thanks to this information, it is possible to predict the disturbances which will be generated and, if necessary, to start a alarm in order to warn the people concerned.

One of the big challenges of the meteorology of space is to manage to predict the characteristics of the ejections of mass coronale arriving on Earth as well as the hour of arrived while being based on given coronographes. The alert could then be given three days earlier. With this intention, the scientists develop data-processing codes and simulate the way of the ejection of mass coronale between the Sun and the Ground thanks to the theory of the Magnétohydrodynamique. This method, which asks for the use of supercomputers is yet only with its first stammerings.

Certain disturbances are more easily foreseeable. Thus, the fast Solar wind, which is emitted by holes coronaux of Sun (areas where the lines of solar Magnetic field open towards interplanetary space), is him also the cause of magnetic storms. However the Sun rotates in approximately 27 days, so that these disturbances come to sweep the Earth with regular intervals. One speaks then about recurring storms. These storms are generally weaker than those produced by the CME, but, on average, the damage caused with the satellites (in particular via energy particles) are quite as important.

As in terrestrial meteorology, it is often easier to predict the long-term conditions than in the short run. The Sun follows a cycle of activity of approximately eleven years (the solar Cycle), which makes it possible to anticipate the average conditions several years in advance. The amplitude of the solar cycle fluctuates however, and it even seems to have the characteristics of the deterministic chaos. The forecast of the next peak of solar activity, which is not stripped of economic interest, is currently the subject of many studies. One can to hope in next years slow improvement of capacities of prediction, on the one hand via development of methods empirical (in particular calling upon Artificial intelligence and techniques of automatic recognition of form), which make it possible to exploit the precursory signs as well as possible, and on the other hand with physical models. These models in particular make it possible to include/understand how the sunspots develop under surface solar, in the zone of convection. The digital simulation thus constitutes a means of invaluable study, which makes it possible to compensate to a certain extent our cruel lack of observations.

Effects

The variations of the space medium can affect to us in several ways. Certain effects are known besides of long time, whereas their solar origin was discovered only recently.

Effects on the communications

The electromagnetic waves emitted between the ground and the telecommunications satellites must cross the Ionosphère, an ionized medium which modifies slightly. The ranges of Fréquence most concerned go from 10 MHz to 2 GHz approximately. At the time of magnetic storms, solar eruptions or events with protons, the characteristics of the ionosphere change and the transmission is some affected. The waves can suffer from dispersion, be strongly even completely attenuated or be refracted, causing interferences then. Some of these effects can be local (a few kilometers) and last a few minutes whereas others (events with protons) affect the polar regions during several hours. The majority are difficult to predict. Other disturbances can occur at the time of solar eruptions, when the Ondes radio emitted by the Sun interfere directly with the terrestrial emissions. Instruments as the radiohéliographe of Nançay make it possible to follow and study these solar emissions.

These effects are known operators of telecommunications satellites, which then make use of communications satellite to transmit the communications. These effects more affect still the radiocommunications of averages and long distances in the band HF, which is affected by the variations of the ionosphere. The positioning by satellites (GPS) is him also concerned. It happens occasionally that the measure of location is false or that the signal of the satellites is not collected any more. Several interruptions of service GPS for example occurred at the time of the war of the Gulf, disturbing military operations. These dysfunctions constitute today the main obstacle with the provision of an operational service 100% and make all the more necessary the simultaneous sending of information to validate the measure of location.

Another example of event is that which has occurred in October - November 2003, where, following a series of solar eruptions, several transpolar flights lost during more than one hour the radio operator contact with the ground and could not make use of the GPS. The airline companies concerned envisage since (as far as possible) routes of deviation, which involves an increased fuel consumption and delays.

Effects on the satellites and the launchers

Among the effects best documented in meteorology of space, there are those which relate to the satellites. The energy particles emitted at the time of solar eruptions penetrate deeply inside the matter (a few mm for the electrons, a few cm for the protons), of which they can in the long term degrade the properties. Especially, they accumulate there electric charges which end up causing breakdowns. The computer material is very sensitive there. The effects can be benign with for example changes of state in the memory, where Bit S pass from 0 to 1 or conversely. Other effects can be more serious, with the destruction of vital components, like the control system of attitude. In the first case, one can be satisfied to start again the trip computer, or to rock on a redundant system. In the second case, the satellite can lose part of its functions to even become completely inoperative.

In the image of right-hand side, each point represents a listed data-processing error on board the English satellite UoSat-2 according to its site. The failure rate strongly increases above Brazil, in an area called. This particular area owes its existence with a light decentring between the terrestrial Dipôle magnetic and the axis of terrestrial rotation. The radiation belts are relatively closer to the Earth above the Brésil, where more energy particles penetrate in high the Atmosphère. These particles are responsible for computer breakdowns observed on board UoSat-2. A number of incidents increased there is also observed for the trip computers of the airliners.

The image of right-hand side represents the radiation belts, a toroidal zone which becomes populated protons and electrons of high energy at the time of magnetic storms. These particles can reside at it during weeks even of the months and constitute an important threat for the satellites which cross these areas. It is in particular the case of satellites NAVSTAR of the system GPS and the satellites Galileo.

It is estimated that several satellites are definitively lost every 10 years because of the ionizing ray. This figure is however difficult to establish in the absence of reliable statistics on the commercial or military satellites. The orbits most concerned are those which are located in the Solar wind (where the satellite is not protected by the magnetic shield from the Magnétosphère and in the radiation belts. Best protection consists in armouring the sensitive circuits and using redundant systems. The same danger watches for the launchers; it is estimated that the default risk of a rocket ARIANE 5 at the time of a strong solar event can exceed a percent.

The satellites are also affected by the radiation UV, which deteriorates the crystalline structure of the solar panels and thus decreases their output. The solar panels typically lose 25% of their output in ten years, but only one solar eruption can make fall this value of several for hundreds.

Another effect relates to the Orbitographie. The objects which move on low orbits (typically less than 800 km of altitude) meet a low resistance of the atmosphere, which slows down them and their fact of losing altitude permanently. At the time of solar eruptions or of magnetic storms, the warmings of the ionosphere and the packing which is followed from there accelerate this loss of altitude. Certain satellites can thus lose more than 10 km in a few days. These effects are particularly awkward for the satellites of observation of the Earth such as Spot, whose position must be known with a high degree of accuracy. They relate to also the space Débris, which strew space and constitute a permanent threat for any object in space. The remains whose size exceeds 1 cm are followed permanently by the American radar of Haystack of NORAD. However any inopportune change of orbit requires the tiresome recalculation of their position.

The problem of the orbitographic forecast appeared in an acute way at the time of the atmospheric re-entry of the Russian space station MIR. The remains of this station finished their race in the Pacific Ocean on March 23rd, 2001, in full period of solar activity. Because of the latter, it was very difficult to envisage the point of fall.

The requirements in orbitography relate to the short-term forecast (hours even days) to be guarded against any brutal change of orbit, but also the long-term forecast (years) to envisage the quantity of fuel necessary to take again altitude.

Effects on the living beings

The ionizing rays constitute also a risk for the living beings. It is necessary to make here the difference between the solar radiation of origin, which is mainly made up of protons and electrons whose energy can reach 100 MeV. This flow of particles is intermittent and not easily foreseeable. The eruptions occur in the space of a few minutes and can last one hour or more. The cosmic Rayonnement is mainly of extragalactic origin and the energy of the particles can easily exceed 100 GeV. This cosmic flow fluctuates little and decreases only by 10 to 25% for the periods of strong solar activity. This reduction is a consequence of the interplanetary disturbances such as the ejections of mass coronales, which are on average ten times more frequent in period of strong solar activity and then contribute to disperse the cosmic radiation.

Only the energy particles can cross the terrestrial magnetic field. They penetrate then in the atmosphere, where they undergo collisions and cause nuclear reactions whose products (in particular neutrons) are detected on the ground. The living beings most directly concerned are thus the astronauts, especially when they are not protected by the space station. A very strong solar eruption can cause in a few minutes the death of an insufficiently protected astronaut. It occurs some on average two every ten years. By chance, it never occurred some at the time of the missions Apollo. On the other hand, the probability of having at the time of a voyage towards the planet Mars is important. The solution consists in envisaging a cockpit armor-plated in the space engine and prohibiting any activity in space during periods at the risk.

The living beings on Earth are also exposed to the ionizing rays, but the extraterrestrial contribution remains weak there. The amount increases however with altitude because the atmosphere constitutes a second protective coating after the geomagnetic field. It also increases with the latitude because the effectiveness of the magnetic shielding is less when one approaches the poles. The flight crew and the passengers are thus prone to an ionizing ray more important than on the ground. The Concorde was directly concerned because of its high altitude of flight (approximately 18 km). It was besides one of the rare planes to be equipped with Dosimètre S. Aujourd'hui, with the new European regulations on the maximum amounts which the flight crew and the expectant mothers can receive, it is necessary to carry out a follow-up of the received amounts. The calculation of the amount accumulated during a flight can easily be done a posteriori, as for example system SIEVERT shows it. The image on the right represents the time amount estimated by the Circle of the Observatoire of Meudon at an altitude of 12 km at the time of the violent solar eruption of January 20th, 2005. A passenger borrowing a flight from high latitudes received this day a considerable portion of the permissible maximum annual amount in France (5 mSv/an, except exposed people).

Various animal species (in particular the carrier pigeons) have the capacity to detect the terrestrial magnetic field and make use of it to be directed. It would seem that pigeons were disorientated at the time of geomagnetic storms. However, in Europe, the impact of such storms on the orientation of the magnetic field remains weak, about the degree. The effects of the storms on the animals thus require to be supported by scientific studies.

Effects on the electrical communications

The night of March 13rd, 1989, a breakdown of Transformateur occurred in the Electrical communication of Hydro-Quebec, involving dysfunctions which, in less than 90 seconds plunged more than 6 million people in the darkness. This breakdown lasted 9 hours and the amount of the damage was evaluated to 9 billion $. This breakdown, which remains exceptional, is the result of a sequence of events which started by a magnetic storm which intensified the ionospheric currents with high latitudes. The latter generated by Induction in the earth's crust of the currents which were added to those circulating normally in the transformers. It resulted overheating from it from certain transformers, which were already strongly requested.

The impact of the magnetic storms and the induced currents is well-known countries located at high latitudes (Scandinavia, Canada, the United States, New Zealand) whose companies of electricity since took measurements to relieve the network in the event of similar event. Finland never seems to have known breakdown, thanks to an important safety margin on the acceptable power of the transformers. On the other hand, Sweden knew several breakdowns. The majority of these countries call upon forecasting models to alert in the event of magnetic storm. These forecasts are alas only of one limited interest, because they are based to measures taken in the solar wind, between the Sun and the Earth, and leave that one hour of notice.

The same induced currents can affect the Oléoduc S and the Gazoduc S, involving an increased corrosion. Dysfunctions were also announced in the indication of the railway networks. These effects are pronounced in the zone known as auroral, located between 65 and 75° of magnetic Latitude. However as the magnetic pole is shifted of 11° approximately geographical pole, the Siberia is assigned relatively little, whereas the north of the United States is more, to equal geographical latitude. At the time of strong magnetic storms, these effects can feel until lower latitude. The image of right-hand side shows a Polar lights observed the night of October 30th, 2003 by military satellite DMSP. This dawn was observed as far as Belgium, in Germany and Poland, and generated strong currents induced until in the south of Scandinavia. Today, with the strong interconnection of the European electrical communications, the dysfunction of part of the network is not any more one regional problem, but can affect several countries.

Effects on the climate

The Sun is the independent source of energy of our planet and it is consequently normal to seek solar causes with the climatic variations. Many scientific studies showed that at the time of the last two millenia, the periods of weak solar activity (absence of Sunspots) coincided with a general cooling of the sphere. One the most marked of on between 1645 and 1715, the also known one under the small Ice Age. Several studies also announced a recrudescence of the solar activity during the twentieth century, with in particular an increase in the magnetic field, whose effects on Earth are for the moment badly known.

The solar energy contribution with the Earth is expressed by the solar Constante, whose median value is of 1367 W/m ². This quantity is measured only since 1976 and only varies some for miles between the periods of strong and weak solar activity. One estimates that the solar contribution to current climate warming is only from 3 to 18%, with large uncertainties on the exact value and the mechanisms by which the Sun acts on the terrestrial environment (cf appears on the right). These figures result from the report/ratio 2007 of the intergovernmental Group of expert on the evolution of the climate (GIEC). The mechanisms indeed complex, are strongly inter-connected and can sometimes have opposite effects. Thus, a fall of the solar activity could also involve a rise of the terrestrial temperature. A weak activity indeed tends to increase the cosmic radiation (particles being less dispersed by the interplanetary medium). However the cosmic radiation accelerates the formation of clouds at certain altitudes via the mechanism of nucleation, which starts the Condensation. These clouds finally will contribute to retain the radiation Infrarouge emitted by the Earth, thus causing a rise of the temperature.

The bond between solar activity and climate remains badly known even if the signature of the 11 years periodicity of the solar Cycle is found in very many observations on Earth: in the temperature, the pressure, the rainfall, but also in the circulation of the winds, the start date of the grape harvest, etc the radiation Ultra-violet plays here probably a big role. The energy contribution of this part of the solar spectrum is very weak, but its variability is definitely stronger than in the visible light, where most of the contribution in energy is. However the ultraviolet radiation is mainly absorbed in the Ionosphère and the interaction of this one with more the lower atmospheric layers like the Mésosphère and the Stratosphère) is little known. On this subject, of the transitory luminous phenomena very short was observed since 1990 above stormy zones. They are in particular electric shocks, which could be used as relay between low the Ionosphère and the Stratosphère, and thus to give an account of the energy exchanges between these two mediums. The future microsatellite Taranis of CNES will be dedicated to the study of these phenomena.

Other effects

There exist many other effects related to meteorology of space. The disturbances of the geomagnetic field affect also oil drillings, for which the precise guidance of the Trépan is generally done using the magnetic field. The companies of reinsurance are indirectly concerned. The insurance of a satellite represents today a big part of the cost of a space mission. However it is obviously interesting for a company to be able to make the difference between the unforeseeable risks and those which are it are not. Let us quote finally the carrier pigeons, whose direction of orientation is affected by the magnetic storms.

The meteorology of space does not have only harmful effects. The polar lights from time immemorial exerted a fascination on the men. Many tourists resort today to paying forecasts of the auroral activity to prepare their voyage in the auroral areas.

History of the discipline

1859 : September 1st, the astronomer Richard Carrington observed an important group of sunspots, when very of a blow " two points intensely luminous and white are apparus." Carrington had just observed an eruption (flare) particularly violent, seldom visible in white light. 17 hours later, the terrestrial environment was strongly disturbed, starting dawns until low latitude, and of many disturbances in the telegraph network. Carrington was one of the first to make the bringing together between what had occurred on the Sun and the effects on Ground.

1969: Within the framework of the Program Apollo, NASA creates a security service of the terrestrial environment to determine the risk of irradiation of the Astronaute S. Those are indeed exposed to important amounts of radiation according to the crossed areas (in particular the radiation belts) and at the time of solar eruptions. This service of NASA marked a first step towards the comprehension and the forecast of the risks associated with the space medium.

1990 : Space Environment Center (Boulder, the United States) harvest the data coming from various instruments on the ground and in space, an aim of characterizing the space medium, and becomes the principal center of forecast of the space medium. It is also the only one to function 24:00 /24h and with thus being able to be described as operational. This center operation in close cooperation with the US Air Force, for which the permanent knowledge of the space environment becomes an strategic issue.

1995 : The scientific satellite SoHO, dedicated to the observation of the Sun, comes to upset our comprehension of this star and reveals at the same time the violence and the complexity of the eruptive mechanisms.

1999 : NASA launches the project “With Living room has Star” (LWS), including/understanding a flotilla of the satellites to observe Earth and Sun. For the first time, scientific satellites have vocation to feed an operational service of the study of the space medium: the data must be available in real-time and without interruption. As of 2003 this program is renamed International With Living room has Star (ILWS) and includes from now on European, Japanese and Chinese missions. The first satellite (and also largest) has to return within the framework of this program is Solar Dynamics Observatory, which will be launched in summer 2008; it is used for the permanent observation of the Sun.

1999 : The European space agency (ESA) elects two consortia to conceive a European utility routine of meteorology of space. The conclusions are returned two years later. The scientific community transmits a strong message so that is set up a European network of forecast as well as a whole of satellites of observations. But the market is not yet ripe and much of potential users are not ready to invest in such a service. There is also a political problem: does such a service have to be assured by the ESA or the European Community? The situation in the United States is very different, where the space budget is comparatively more important and where the army is strongly implied. The ESA decides for the moment to finance a series of pilot schemes.

2004 : European scientists assemble the program COST724, of which the goal is to federate the activities of various European countries in the field of the meteorology of space. This program is completed in 2007 with the setting on line of a gate Internet, which gathers in particular all the partners.

2007 : Many countries finance research projects devoted to the meteorology of space. Several space probes soon will make it possible to study new aspects of the relations Sun-Ground. It is about European projects (PICARDY, PROBA2), even international (STEREOPHONY, SDO, HINODE…). One remains however still very far from an operational program which would deliver project intendeds with the users, as it is the case in terrestrial meteorology.

Which bond with terrestrial meteorology?

The meteorology of space and the terrestrial Météorologie have many common points. In both cases, the objective is to supervise our environment to predict the evolution with economic, scientific but such strategic aims of it. Terrestrial meteorology really took its rise in the years 1970, when the satellites of observation offered finally a comprehensive view of the terrestrial atmosphere and the numerical Prévision of time became a tool impossible to circumvent. It however took him several decades to evolve of a service with scientific vocation to an operational service ready to deliver products for the general public.

The current location in meteorology of space is comparable with that which prevailed in terrestrial meteorology in the years 1960. Even if there are an awakening of its importance and economic consequences, scientific comprehension remains still limited and the adequate lack of means of observation remains a major hurdle. In fact, there exists today very little of products adapted to the users because the forecasts miss reliability and/or cannot be provided sufficiently in advance.

Let us note also some important differences between meteorology of space and terrestrial meteorology. The first cannot be done with the regional scales and requires the taking into account of the whole Héliosphère. A space program of meteorology of space can be conceived only with the international scales.

Space meteorology or meteorology of space?

Two names space meteorology and meteorology of space are often used in an interchangeable way. The first is however already used to indicate the data processing space at ends of terrestrial meteorology, and should thus be avoided. The english-speaking speak about , a term which appeared in the years 1980. One attends also today the emergence of the climatology of the space , which is interested more particularly in the long-term effects.

See Too

; External bonds

SoHO Space Weather: the solar activity in real-time, starting from the satellite SoHO
ESA Space Weather: the gate of the ESA on the meteorology of space
spaceweather.eu: multilingual European gate of the meteorology of space, with French documents.
Sun and Earth, site of the ECA on some of the physical mechanisms of the solar activity.
spaceweather.com: American site of information on the meteorology of space and the solar activity
spaceweathercenter.org: idem
Regional Warning Center Sweden: example of center of geomagnetic prediction of activity in Sweden (Lund).
" Space Weather" on en.wikipedia.org
SIDC: the Belgian center of forecast of the solar activity.
PICARDY: presentation of the microsatellite of the CNES which will be launched in 2009 and which will be useful inter alia measuring the variation of the solar diameter.
observations of satellite SOHO on the site of NASA

; Bibliography

J. Lilensten and J. Bornarel, Under fires of the Sun: towards a meteorology of space , EDP Sciences, 2001 (popularization on the sociétaux effects of the meteorology of space).
J. Lilensten and P. - L. Blelly, Of the Sun to the Earth: aeronomy and meteorology of space , EDP Sciences, 2000 (work on the aeronomy, with a part on the impact of the solar activity).
J. Lilensten, Towards a space meteorology, article published in the newspaper of CNRS. - to download.
P. Lantos, Sun opposite , Masson, 1997 (excel scientific work on the Sun, accessible to many people).
K.R. Lang, Sun and its relations with the Earth , Springer, 1995 (richly illustrated, but a little obsolete).
J. - C. Boudenot, space Environment , Which do I know? , 1995 (a precursory book on the risks in the space environment).
T. Encrenaz and Al, the Solar system , Interéditions/Editions of CNRS, 2003 (scientific work on the solar system).
Research , except series number 15 over the Sun, 2005. - bond.
P. Lantos and T. Amari, Solar eruptions and meteorology of space, For science, 284,2001, pp. 54-61.

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