A metadatum (of the Greek meta " après" and from the Latin Dated " informations") is a Donnée being used for defining or describing another data whatever its support (paper or electronics).
History
In the Numeric libraries (Media library S), one took the practice to use Bibliographic records to describe the contents and the aspects Normatif S of a Document. They facilitate the internal management of the documentary Ressources and, side Usager S, make it possible to optimize the research and the localization of the electronic Documents.
As of 1988, the Library of the Congress, in the United States, proposed a protocol for the Recherche of information (Z39.50), founded on elements of data, which was re-examined in 1992.
Generalization
The Languages of marking of the type GML, then SGML and HTML, made it possible to introduce metadata into the documents. The European Communities adopted the language SGML as of 1984.
The notion of metadata usable by the Ordinateur S was proposed rather early in the history of the Web, as of 1994, by its inventor Tim Berners-Lee, at the time of the conference WWW 94 where the creation of W3C was announced. The metadata are indeed in the middle of the Architecture Web.
In 1995, the metadata were the subject of a workshop in Dublin (Ohio), for the methods of Recherche of information. In parallel, the Bibliothèque of the Congress proposed one 3rd version of the protocol Z39.50.
In 1999, W3C defines the framework making it possible to create a network of metadata accepting the language XML: Resource Description Framework (RDF).
The joint base of metadata Dublin Core was adopted by the European Union in 2002.
A concept which relates to all the organizations
Description
The notes contain information on the source of the document (Titer, Auteur, Date, subject, editor, etc), the nature of the Document (Monographie, Périodique, etc), its informational contents (descriptors, Mots-clés, summarized) and its physical localization (the dimension).
For a numerical Document, these notes are called metadata and are contained in the document itself. The metadata are also used for other types of Computer's resources containing images or sound (Cédérom, Dévédérom).
The metadata are, within the framework of the semantic Web, of the meaning data which make it possible to facilitate the access to the informational contents of a Computer's resource, a to some extent integrated note of contents (in the heading of the documents HTML side source code or as a file autonomous XML for example).
At least fifteen elements, distributed around three fields, make it possible to identify and describe the documentary Ressources:
- Contained: titrate, prone, description, source, language, relation, cover.
- Intellectual property: creator, editor, contributor, right (royalty,…).
- Matérialisation: date, standard, format, identifier.
The metadata are an essential component of the Architecture Web.
However, to limit the metadata to the numerical Resources of the types documents, sounds and images, would be an error: in the relational Databases, the metadata include the name of each table and the type of each column in the table.
A concept essential with the Interworking
See also: data-processing Interworking
The metadata correspond to beacons which one introduces into the files or adapted computer programming languages, languages of marking XML.
The beacons cause to improve the effectiveness of the Recherches of information compared to the Recherches full text.
RDF (Resource Description Framework) creates the conditions of Interopérabilité, with networks of metadata, and the use of the language XML.
It is very important to note that the numerical Ressources marked out transport with them their own metadata when they are downloaded, copied, retorted, transmitted by emails.
This applies to all the types of numerical resources (text, its, image, Multimédia).
The metadata are thus one of the principal elements of labelling with beacons (or tags, in data-processing language), especially in the Web 2.0.
The potential of the metadata is much more important, because they can make interopérer the Computer's resources, insofar as they were parameterized and structured in Data dictionaries (or Registres of metadata). One can then make communicate the traditional Databases, used in the integrated Business packages) and the Donnée S not structured (documents, images, handled in Knowledge management…).
All the Secteurs of the economy can be concerned
For a whole of reasons, as well historical as legal, one did not take Conscience yet, in Europe, of the sensitivity of the management of the metadata for the Decision-making process in the Entreprise S.
Even in the United States, this awakening was difficult, the technicality of the subject hiding its strategic nature.
The American expert Robert Steele included/understood well the importance of the metadata in the open Sources.
The metadata relate to all the Secteurs of the economy through the Content management, since all the organizations manage documentary Ressources in electronic form:
- Administration S territorial power stations and,
- Undertaken S,
- University S and universities,
- Centers of studies and research,
- Media library S.
In the economy of immaterial the, it is important to protect the informational Patrimoine consisted the documentary Ressources, because the electronic Documents often contain Donnée S Confidentielle S.
The circulation of documents in electronic form between various types of organizations returns the protection of the informational Patrimoine complex.
Difference in perception between America and Europe
According to Robert Steele, expert American in open Sources, which intervenes in Brussels, the metadata has to play an increasingly important part for the advanced Représentation context in the model of Access control and the languages of Ressources active Web.
In America
A certain number of teams implied in the Sémantique on the Web organized a workshop in Dublin (Ohio) in 1995 on the metadata, by defining the standard Dublin Core.
Various departments of the federal government (DoD,…) obtained Registres of metadata, which make it possible to define a common field of division of knowledge between organizations working on subjects of Souveraineté: defense, Justice, environment…. The Library of the Congress, located at Washington, plays a driving role in the definition of the metadata to the the United States.
The standards of metadata one of the three key elements of the strategy are given in Réseau centered (Net-Centric Dated Strategy) of the Department of Defense of the United States, with the Communautés of interest and the services of company GIG.
The Canadian government must conform to the Dublin Core since October 2001.
In the European Union
In the United Kingdom, the UKOLN (United Kingdom Office for Library and Networking Information) is the most advanced organization on the management of the numerical information (metadata and Interopérabilité). It develops projects for the Research and development financed by the European Union. It has an influence on the regulation, the “awareness”, the Research and development, technologies Web.
In France, for lack of Information or Formation on this subject, relatively few Webmestre S integrates metadata into the digital contents which they publish. The reason is probably that the metadata do not have a legal authenticity Normative at the European level and in the Member States (in particular in France), since there is no legal obligation nor of official standard. The Webmestre S introduce step by step Métaélément S (meta tags, beacons meta) into the Web pages.
Organizations like the Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique and CNES (members of association ARISTOTE employ metadata for the Archivage in the long run, by using the recommendations of OAIS.
The CORES Resolution ('' standard interoperability forum Resolution one Metadata Identifiers Element 12-12-2002 '') adopted in 2002 the Uniform Identifiants of Resource (Uniform Resource Identifiers, URI) for the access to the Ressources Web, while being pressed on standards of metadata.
“Our standards of metadata have elements - meaning units - which can be compared and put in correspondence with elements of other standards”.
This task force worked for the European commission. It is composed people belonging to:
-
GILS : Government Information Locater Service (the USA)
- MARC21: standards of the Library of the American Congress (the USA)
- IEEE/LOM: Learning Object Metadata (the USA)
- DCMI: Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (the USA)
- DOI Foundation: DIGITAL Object To identify
- ONIX: ONIX for books, diffusion of books
- CERIF: Common European Research Informade0031.htm Metadata/Taxonomy]
- NASA:
Classifications being structured, it is easier to manage the Traçabilité, to incorporate the Donnée S, and to protect the informational Patrimoine.
The metadata are thus an essential component of the building site of Content management in Ingénierie of knowledge.
Metadata and traceability: Management of the proof
The Gestion of the documents of files must be able to be based on coherent data along the Life cycle of the Donnée S. It thus exists Norme S of Gestion of the documents of files (ISO 15489), and a particular standard on the metadata (ISO).
Metadata and aggregation of the data: Governorship
In the field of the Governorship in general ( Government, administration S, undertaken , the metadata Stored S in Métadictionnaire S (or repository ; Référentiel S) is used like “data on the data”, or is bench-mark datum.
The metadata make it possible to describe the Donnée S used in the analyzes and catches of Décision S:
- the exact definition of the Given S (Sémantique)
- the source of the data (Date, origin)
- the way in which they are calculated, incorporated,… (rules of calculation)
- the Règles trade which refer to it
- the process of extraction, transformation and loading which was implemented (see LTE and Intégration of applications of company).
The metadata facilitate the analyzes crossed in the Gouvernance of company:
- the Instrument panels of management and the decisional Data-processing (warehouses of data and datawarehouse): in this case, the tools of extraction and management of the metadata are indexed in the Liste of decision-making tools.
- the prospective Instrument panels, still little employed in France.
Tally of reference
International work converges to use “intelligently” with the Web the metadata with Search engines by describing the numerical Ressources or physics and by establishing relationships to other resources.
Implementation of a Register of metadata
See also: Register of metadata
The piloting of complex organizations (local central administrations and, Poles of competitiveness,…) require to employ information of Autorité, which is contained in reference frames of metadata called Registres of metadata.
A register of metadata is a “Management system of the metadata, i.e. a formal system which provide the information of authority on the Sémantique and the structure of each element. For each element, the register gives of them the definition, the qualifiers which are associated to him, as well as the correspondences with equivalents in other languages or other diagrams. ”
The standard ISO/CEI 11179, whose application is strongly advised by the US government, includes the recommendations for the implementation of a Registre of metadata. Part 6 contains organisational recommendations. For example, it is necessary to set up, at the adequate level, the organization which is appropriate (Architectes of data, network of correspondents,…).
General reference frames of metadata: Dublin Core
See also: Dublin Core
This reference frame finds its origin with the the United States (1995) and was adopted by more than eight governments.
The “Dublin Core” is the principal initiative aiming to the convergence of the elements of metadata at using.
It is a generic diagram of metadata which can be used as a basis for Registres of metadata.
The Dublin Core pushes with a standardization in the European Union, via the Donnée S employed in the Information systems. The European commission thus employs metadata in its white papers, on subjects being able to touch with the Souveraineté.
Program IDABC of the European commission (3rd phase of the IDA program), concerning the services of E-Government, is based largely on the metadata of the Dublin Core. It gave rise to the project MIReG, which aims at developing a Framework metadata, concerning the extensions of the Dublin Core to information Gouvernementale S, which is based on the national recommendations on the metadata of information of the Public sector.
The project of Directive INSPIRES (2006) must encourage the Member States and the European Community to set up organizations public (services of plays of Donnée S), charged creating and with updating the Métadonnées (Registres of metadata), at least concerning the geographical Informations. It should make evolve/move the legislative framework.
There exists a French translation draft of the international standard Dublin Core (see Web site of Artist, October 16th, 2006), but no organization does not seem to assume the responsibility or the Leadership.
Metadata and structuring of the data
Metadata and contents of the Web pages
The contents of the Web pages are structured using Balises meta, in language HTML. The various used beacons make it possible to structure information according to various topics (key words, description, author, title, subject…).
Metadata and validation of the documents: DSDL
The Langage XML was conceived to make circulate information carrying Sémantique on the Toile. This circulation makes it possible to gradually validate information to make Connaissance of it divided between Communautés of practice. On the basis of DTD of SGML, the scale of validation of the Document Diagram Definition Languages (DSDL) was developed in order to validate the electronic Documents. In the case of XML, the use of Schémas XML make it possible to make pass the documents XML of the stage " well-formed" at the stage " valid".
The tools which take part in this progressive validation are the Search engines, whose optimization rest largely on the elements méta of the Langage HTML employed for the Web pages, the Moteurs of rule, and Moteurs of orchestration.
In this total process, the bonds (type of element link in HTML) permanently update the bonds between Web pages for " optimizer" the Knowledge.
For example, in the E-business, starting from an organization in Register of metadata, the joint use of the Register ebXML and Registre of directories UDDI allows to organize a orchestration (in-house with the companies) and a choreography (into external with the companies).
Metadata and classification: Diagrams of classification
The metadata make it possible to structure of the Classification S. One finds examples of Taxonomie S employing of the metadata:
- Income Returned Service: Metadata/Taxonomy
- formal (Title, Author, editor),
- intellectual (subject, description, Language…)
- and relating to the Intellectual property.
The use of this reference frame must imperatively be accompanied by an organization in Registre of metadata. Before very implemented of this reference frame, it is necessary to be conscious of its significant nature in the field of the protection of the informational Patrimoine and the organisational constraints which are dependant there. This is why the US government strongly advises to be based on the recommendations of the standard ISO/CEI 11179 (left 6 on the recording).
The Search engine Google rests on the Dublin Core. The programming network-centric uses the metadata of the Dublin Core.
The system of publication of OpenWeb (Presentation of the metadata “Dublin Core”) is based on this joint base.
The standard ISO 15836: 2003 are the normative transposition of this reference frame in not qualified version. It is used by more than eight governments in the world. In France, one employs it in the electronic Gestion of the documents (GED) or in the Systèmes of electronic filing (SAE).
There does not exist official translation, supplements, and single reference frame Dublin Core in French. There exist several user guides in French.
See: French translation draft of the international standard of metadata Dublin Core.
There exist other reference frames of metadata:
- standard 5015.2 of the Department of Defense for the Records management ,
- Open Document API Management (ODMA), very directed towards the electronic documents,
- X.500 Green Pages.
Other reference frames of metadata
Libraries
The oldest initiative to define joint bases of standardized elements of metadata goes back to the Années 1960, with the MARC standard developed by the Bibliothèque of the Congress.
Diagram MODS, developed by the Library of the Congress, is a compromise between the complexity of MARC and the simplicity of the Dublin Core.
long-term Filing
The Archivage in the long run is done according to the model OAIS, with the diagram XML METS (Metadata Encoding and Standard Transmission). It is used by the Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique and CNES.
Press
IPTC recommends the use of a Référentiel international of metadata specific to the press, IPTC Core.
Tally general: Semantic Web, RDF
See also: semantic Web
The metadata find their full use in the semantic Web. This one rests:
- on the general standards of the Web:
- Protocol HTTP,
- URI,
- language XML
-
on standards suitable for the semantic Web:
- Resource Description Framework (RDF): this framework of reference comprises models of graph intended to describe in a formal way the Ressources Web and their metadata, in order to allow the automatic treatment such descriptions. RDF was defined in 1999 by W3C, it is the basic reference frame of the semantic Web.
- the metadata can also be used in extensions of RDF: RDF Diagram and OWL.
Formats
-
XMP : format of metadata based on XML, used in the applications pdf, of Photography and Graphics, applicable to the Web. It was launched by Adobe Systems in April 2001.
Standardization
See also: Standards on the metadata
The near total of the standards on the metadata are available only in English. The only standards which are available in French language are that on Dublin Core (which actually is very short), and especially the standard ISO 21127 on the immaterial Cultural heritage.
The standardization is important on various aspects: the Search for information, the structuring of ontologies in the semantic Web, and the definition of Rules trade.
The standards on the Registre of metadata (ISO 11179, supplemented by two other standards, Dublin Core) define the concepts and the organization.
In addition to these general standards, there exist standards particular to certain fields:
- the data-processing Filing;
- the Cultural heritage (ISO 21127);
- the geographical Information;
- the E-business;
- the Management of the documents of files;
- the electronic Documents.
Risks
Risks related to the metadata
The metadata are useful for the interworking, but their employment without precaution present of the Risque S.
- One already stressed that the implementation of a Registre of metadata requires to be based on the suitable standard (ISO/CEI 11179),
- Certains experts recommend to remove the metadata of the electronic Documents.
See: Content Security Risks on the metadatarisk.org site
The greatest risk would be to be unaware of the importance of the metadata, and not to perceive that they are largely used in many computing systems.
Use by the data-processing Languages
The metadata can be used in the Langages of marking: SGML , HTML , XHTML .
derived XML, and its languages:
- Language GML (Geography Markup Language);
- multi-media Language SMIL 1.0 (element meta) and SMIL 2.0 (element metadata).
The language SKOS, under development with W3C for use in the European Community, envisages to employ metadata within the framework RDF in semantic environment Web.
The language Java also accepts the metadata.
See: List of the JSR on the data-processing Interworking
Generation of the metadata
The metadata can be introduced in a manual, but so semi-automatic, or automatic way.
See:
- Propagation of metadata by the analysis of the bonds
- Toward has metadata generation framework
Criticisms
Although the majority of the data processing specialists see the metadata like an opportunity for a better interworking, some critical point out that:-
the metadata are too expensive and consuming time. The argument is that the companies will not produce metadata without there being a need, because that costs money, and the private individuals will not produce complex metadata because their creation takes much time.
- the metadata are too complex. The private individuals will not create metadata because the existing formats, especially MPEG-7, are too complicated. As long as there will be no automatic tool to create the metadata, one will not create any.
- the metadata are subjective and depend on the context. Two people will probably associate different metadata with the same resource because from their different points of view. Moreover, the metadata can be badly interprêtées owing to the fact that they depend on the context. For example, research on " art post-moderne" a certain element parce the expression can miss was not of use at the time when this work of art was created, or research on the " photographs taken with 1:00 " can produce results confused because of the differences in local time.
- It does not have there end with the metadata. For example, when one annotates a football game with metadata, one can describe all the players and their actions and stop there. One can also describe publicity in background and clothing which the players carry. One can also describe each to support in the platforms and clothing which it carries. All these metadata can be interesting in a way or of another - as the spectators, the sponsors or a unit of the police force specialized in the fight against terrorism - and even for a simple resource, the possible quantity of metadata can be gigantic.
- the metadata are useless. Many search engines make it possible today to find text very effectively. Other techniques to seek images, video and music will become increasingly powerful in the future. Thus, one does not need really the metadata.
- For the multilingual documents, the metadata still should be translated, which increases complexity and the risks. It would be necessary moreover to translate the Normes on the metadata in the principal languages.
Uses by types of resources
Web pages
The language HTML makes it possible to structure nature and the contents of the Web pages. It is the most traditional use.
relational Databases
The relational databases use also metadata in the tables.
It is in the strategic phase of Alignement of the Projet S of Information system, in particular of urbanization, which one is brought to study how the data of safety position in the architecture of data of the information systems.
Unix filesystems
The Filesystems have some basic information on the files, which are for this reason metadata. The principal ones are the name of the file, its size, the modification and creation date last.
In the Systems UNIX, the Rights of access (in reading, writing and execution according to the user, the group, or the others) are significant metadata. These Rights of access is described in what one calls the Inode S (contraction of index-node, node of index).
It would seem that the future of the localization, the reading-location and the collection of Information in the Filesystems passes by the massive use of the metadata.
Certain filesystems under development like version 4 of ReiserFS or WinFS aim to make the research of the files simpler and more intuitive, and the metadata make it possible to arrive there. All the files will thus be equipped with metadata making it possible to know what they contain.
It should be noted that the principle is not new: the BeOS spins system (BFS) was in particular famous for its support of the metadata. The resource fork of the filesystem used by old the version of Mac OS also allowed this type of management.
Office automation files
Formats of files such as pdf, Word, Excel, or OpenOffice.org use metadata. They are visible and can be supplemented starting from the menu Fichier > properties of the document in the interface of the corresponding applications.
The format of document OpenDocument (or ODF), opened, contains metadata in the file meta.xml. This format was recommended by Bernard Carayon and was adopted by the European Union.
Contents Multi-media
Graphic files
Each format of Digital image implements a specific way to store the metadata, but there exist certain standards common to several types, for example:
- the standard EXIF is usable at the same time in the files JPEG or tiff,
- the standard XMP is integrable with a dozen of the different types of file (JPEG, JPEG 2000, tiff, GIF, png, etc).
- DIG35, and JPX.
Its
The formats of Its numerical integrate metadata:
- Dolby DIGITAL EX
- Dolby E
Applicable technologies are PRISM, NewsML, and NITF.
See also: IPEG
Files MP3
The metadata are used by the format MP3 in the tags ID3. One can insert indeed there information like the name of the song, the interpreter, or the date of exit.
Uses by types of applications
Free software
The free software uses like all the software of the metadata. For example, the management system integrated of the documents of the government of Quebec employs metadata with components of indexing and storage.
See: Governmental services of Quebec, basic functions in document management
In France, in the Common Framework of Interworking of the General Reference frame of Interworking of the program of E-Government ADELE, technologies of the Free software are represented via Zope, which has capacities with interopérer via the language DTML (Dynamic Template Markup Language). This language employs itself of the metadata.
See: Zope - Configuring the Metadata Tool
Management of the Patent S
The rights of Intellectual property are one of the elements Dublin Core. The data on the Brevet S can be indexed in applications of Gestion of the patents or management of the innovative credits (IPAM, Intellectual Property Asset Management, or IAM), by using metadata.
See: Intellectual assets--Been worth Corporate moves from signal minds to bottom linesa price one (what' S in) your head
integrated Business packages
Large the integrated Business packages (SAP, Oracle Corporation,…) functions have making it possible to manage the metadata. They are called sometimes Gestion of the bench-mark data or Master Data Management (MDM).
Content management
The progicielles applications of Knowledge management have, in the Content management, of the functions making it possible to manage the metadata.
For this reason, they are essential for the Gestion of the proof (see supra ).
Application program interfaces (API)
The metadata can be employed in the specifications J2EE of the Computer programming language Java, in particular in the Application program interfaces (API).
They are the subject of formats of interface: JMI (Metadata Java Interfaces), specific to the language Java.
XMI (XML Metadata Interchanges) is a standard of exchanges of metadata UML.
Search engines
The Search engines can be based on metadata to improve the Recherches of information compared to the Recherches full text. In the years 1995 - 1999, one used many the Métaéléments HTML to optimize ies first search engines, but one realized that they were not always reliable.
Services Web
The Services Web (architecture SOA) handle great quantities of metadata. The organization WS-I (Web Interoperability Services) developed a series of future profiles to make evolve/move the Norme S implied in the Interopérabilité of the Services Web.
See: Web Services Specifications: Registry And Metadata, 12/28/2006.
The metadata are used for several things: they describe the formats of message which the service deals with, and models of exchange of valid messages for a service, thanks to the specification WSDL. The metadata describe also the capacities and the requirements of a service, thanks to the specification WS-Policy. This last form of metadatum names the “strategy” of a service. Among the specifications which the services Web for the metadata use, in addition to WSDL and WS-Policy, it is necessary to quote WS-Security and WS-MetadataExchange.
Data-processing decisional
The metadata make it possible to carry out multidimensional analyzes, in the applications of human Stock management, finances, Gestion of the client relationship.
For this reason, they are an essential component of the Gouvernance of company (see supra ).
E-business
The Interoperability project off Dated in E-Trade Systems or INDECS (compatibility of the data in the systems of e-business) employs metadata.
Electronic money
The standards in Electronic money and systems of payment by Credit cards comprise metadata (example).
Operating systems
The metadata will be used in the next operating system Microsoft Windows Vista, whose conditions of safety are discussed.
See: Gartner worries about the metadata in Windows Vista
Emails
The emails can convey metadata. Jason R. Baron made a study within the framework of the IEEE in 1999 on the filing of the emails of the American Administration.
See the presentation which it makes for the US National Files and Records Administration: ERPA Antwerp Workshop, April 15th, 2004
Management systems of rules trade
SGRM define Règles trade by employing metadata.
Syndication of contents Web
The beacons of syndication RSS contain metadata.
Dynamic metadata and context
The use of dynamic metadata makes it possible to better interpret the context.
See:
- Managing dynamic metadata ace context
- Dynamic metadata
The metadata are employed in the strategies Réseau centered.
Scopes of application
Numeric library
-
Library off Congress DIGITAL Repository Development Core Medata Elements
kingly Functions
Government and finances:
- Standards of the metadata of the Canadian government, under the responsibility of the Council of the Treasury
- In France, the metadata are employed in the program ADELE, the rules relating to the Composants Commun runs (see site of the DGME, regulates C73), and for the electronic Archivage according to the standard OAIS (see site of the DGME)
- Site of DoD: Registre of metadata of the Department of Defense
- DITPR is a reference frame which makes it possible to declare the metadata in the Cadre of architecture DoDAF.
- Data sheets “diffusion of the data” of the Ministry for Ecology, Installation and Sustainable development
- Metadata development in Clouded, Department off Information Management, Peking University, China, December 2004
Internal security :
- Homeland security, meeting 2003
Justice :
- In the United States: Data model of the department of justice
- In France: Solon project of dematerialization of the legal normative production. The perimeter defined in 2005 relates to only the decrees.
Environment, ecology
-
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Environmental metadata gateway
- European Agency of the environment: EIONET
The Agence of environmental protection of the United States (EPA) defined a data-processing language containing metadata: .
E-business
-
E-business: the register EbXML, managed on the level of the the United Nations, uses metadata.
Data géospatiales
-
the United States: Site of federal the geographic dated committee
- European Union: Directive INSPIRES, on the space data and geographical
Other fields
- Dictionary of metadata for the reference frame of the publications of CNRS
- AgMES on the site of FAO
- on anglophone Wikipedia.
- US Geological Survey
- international Chamber of commerce
Santé
- United States health information knowledge bases
Navy and Oceanography
- Marine Metadata Interoperability
etc
French-speaking organizations having competences on the metadata
List nonexhaustive:
- INRIA
- Council Secretariat of the Treasury of Canada
- Library of the University Laval
- 3Ecole Nationale Sup3erieure of the mines of Saint-Etienne
- INIST
- University Claude-Bernard Lyon 1
- CNRS, laboratory Creatis
- Pierre University and Marie-Curie, LIP6
- National library of France
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