Makuria

Makuria (in Arab: مقرة) is a kingdom located in what today would be the area extending from the north of the Sudan in the south of the Egypt. It was one of the three kingdoms Nubie NS which emerged after the fall of the kingdom of Méroé, which dominated the area of -800 at the year 350. Makuria skirted along the the Nile and extended from the third cataract at a place located between the fifth and the sixth cataract. The kingdom had the control of the ways of exchanges, the mines, and the oases of the east in the west of the area. Its capital was Dongola, and the kingdom is sometimes known under this name.

At the end of the 6th century, the kingdom converts with the Christianity but at the 7th century, the conquest of the Egypt by the Moslem armies cut the Nubie of the remainder of the Christendom. In 651 the zone is invaded by an Arab army, but it is pushed back and a treaty known under the name of baqt is signed and founds a relative peace between the two parts, peace which will last until the 13th century.

The Kingdom of Makuria extended, annexing its neighbors of Nobatia about at the time of the Arab invasion or under the reign of Merkurios. The period extending from 750 with 1150 was synonymous with stability and prosperity and consequently called golden age. The growing aggressions of Egypt and the internal dissensions caused the collapse of the State at the 14th century.

Historical sources

Makuria is by far best known kingdoms of Nubie Christian, but there remain nevertheless many remote regions in its history. The historical independent sources of this period are the writings of travellers Arab and historians having crossed the Nubian area at that time. These testimonys are however often problematic to exploit because the glance of the Moslems of this time on its Christian neighbors is skewed. Moreover these writings relate to mainly the military conflict between Egypt and Nubie. An exception in this unit, the detailed account of the Egyptian diplomat Ibn Selim el-Aswani, which travelled through Dongola at the time or Makuria was at the top of its power, during the 10th century.

The Nubian company knew and practiced the writing, and an interesting quantity of texts of this period could be preserved. These documents are compiled in Ancien Nubian, whose alphabet is based on the Onciale of the Greek alphabet enriched by some symbols Coptes and some other specific to Nubie. The language written as for it is close to current the Nobiin. Although these documents are for a long time translated, the near total of them treat religious questions, or are legal notes, texts of little interest for the historians. The most known collection remains that discovered with Qasr Ibrim, which contains some exploitable official documents.

These last years, archeology represented the best method to obtain information on Makuria. The construction of the stopping of Aswan in 1964 was to cover with water what had formerly been the South of Makuria. In 1960, UNESCO engaged of many actions to carry out the most possible excavations of safeguard before the setting in water. On this occasion, thousands of experts were mobilized all over the world. Among the prospected sites of importance one finds the town of Faras and his cathedral, update by a Polish team, the English work led to Qasr Ibrim and those of the university of the Ghana in the western part of the town of Debeira. This work brought very many information on Nubie medieval. All these sites are located on the zone conquered at the Nobatia, the only important archeological site in building site of Makuria itself is that of exploration partial of the old city of Dongola.

History

Origins

The origins of Makuria are dubious. Ptolémée mentions however a Nubian tribe bearing the name of Makkourae , which could be the ancestors of the inhabitants of Makuria.

The kingdom seems to be made up with. The first mention which is made by it finds in a text of Jean d' Éphèse at the 6th century, which protests against the hostility of Makuria towards the missionaries Monophysite S travelling towards Alodia. Little time after Jean de Biclarum foot-note in its texts the conversion of Makuria to the faith melkite.

The most important event of this period of the history of Makuria was the rout inflicted with an Arab army in 652. The Arabs having conquered Egypt in 641, the Jihad continued her impetus towards the south. At the time of the battle of Dongola, the Arabs were demolished or at least pushed back by the Nubians. The way in which the Nubians ensured their victory is not clear, but the Arab chroniclers notice the great skill of people of Makuria with their arcs. It is the only defeat of importance inflicted with the Arab armies during the first century of their expansion. This defeat involves the signature of the baqt , which guarantees peace between the two parts. In this treaty, the Nubians are committed sending each year to Egypt several hundreds of slaves, n the other hand the Egyptians must provide processed food and products.

In certain zones of north Makuria and Nobatia seem to amalgamate. The evidence of this fusion is not obvious even contradictory. The Arab comments on the invasion of 652 make state indeed only one kingdom centered on Dongola. The bakt , negotiated by king de Makuria, also applies to all the northern part of Alodia. That pushed certain researchers to propose the assumption that the two kingdoms could be unified for this period of disorder. However a book, written in 690 exposes in a clear way that the kingdoms of Makuria and Nobatia are two separated states, to see hostile one towards the other. An admissible proof of the union of the kingdoms is brought by an inscription carried out under the reign of Merkurios to Taifa which shows well that Nobatia was under control makurien in the middle of the 8th century. All the posterior sources on this date also indicate this domination of Makuria. Certain researchers conclude from it that this unification of the two kingdoms was done under the reign of Merkurios, which was also called " new the Constantin " by Jean the deacon ( Johannes Diaconus ).

The denomination of this kingdom joined together is not clear, whether it is in the contemporary sources or among the modern historians. Makuria remains the term employed in geography to indicate the southern half of the kingdom but also to indicate the kingdom as a whole. Certain authors use even the term of Nubie, being unaware of in that it southern of Nubie was always under the control of the part independent of Alodia. It is sometimes also mentioned kingdom of Dongola according to the name of its capital. One finds also sometimes the name of kingdom of Makuria and Nobatia, which perhaps implies a double monarchy. Lastly, one can also find the term of Dotawo which can refer to a completely independent kingdom.

Apogee

Makuria seems to have been stable and thrives during. At that time, Egypt, weakened by frequent civil wars, did not represent a great threat for the north of the country. In fact then the Nubians intervene more in the businesses of the adjoining countries. The majority of the High-Egypt was then still Christian and considered the Nubian kingdoms like potential guards. It is even mentioned the setting with bag of the Cairo at the 8th century, with an aim of defending the Christians, but it is surely an account apocryphal book.

One knows only few things of Makuria for this period. One of the most outstanding facts is undoubtedly the history of Zacharias {{III}} sending his/her son Georgios to Baghdad to negotiate there a reduction of the bakt . Later, Georgios 1st, as a king played a big role in the history of the Arab explorer Al-Umari. Best testimonys over this time are archaeological. The carried out excavations show that the zone was to be stable and prosperous. The pottery, painting and Nubian architecture reached their apogee at that time. It seems that this period coincides with a regular cycle of the the Nile: without famines caused by too weak floods, and without caused destruction when those are too strong.

Egypt and Makuria will develop strong and peaceful relations at the time Fatimide. Fatimides Shiite S of had then combined little among the Muslim world and they regarded the Christians of Africa as good allies.

The power fatimide also depended on the black slaves provided by Makuria, in particular to come to enlarge the rows of their army. The trade between the two states was flourishing. Egypt dispatched Orge, Vin and flax, while Makuria exported Ivoire, Bétail, feathers of Autruche S and Esclave S.

The relations with Egypt are degraded when the Ayyoubides seize the power in Egypt in 1171. Very early at the beginning of this period, the Nubians invade Egypt, perhaps with the support of their Fatimides allies. Ayyubides push back this invasion quickly, and in reprisals, Saladin sends his/her brother Turan Shah to the conquest of Nubie. This last demolishes the Nubians and occupies Qasr Ibrim during several years before being folded up towards north. Ayyubides then decide to send an emissary in Nubie in order to evaluate his potential and to possibly conquer it definitively. But this emissary will consider the country too poor. This is why it seems that Ayyoubides are unaware of this zone during all the century which will follow.

Decline

There do not exist accounts of voyages on Makuria of 1171 with 1272, and the events marking this period remained a long time unknown, although recent archaeological discoveries provide some lightings. At that time Makuria seems to enter a phase of decline. The best source available is Ibn Khaldun which wrote a few tens of years later a text on the invasions Bedouin are and the role that there the Arabs played. Ayyubides indeed behaved in a particularly aggressive way with the tribes Bedouins of close deserts, pushing them with a conflict with the Nubians. The archaeological elements give obvious evidence of increasing instability in Makuria. The formerly open cities gradually obtain ramparts, the inhabitants move towards positions more easily justifiable, like the top of cliffs in the case of Qasr Ibrim. The dwellings become more and more complex, integrating in particular secret hiding places for the food or the goods of value. Archaeological work also shows a growing presence of elements Arabists or Islamists. The freedom of trade being one of the articles of the bakt , going them Arab are reflected to occupy a place important with Dongola and in other cities. It is even possible that north (the old kingdom of Nobatia) strongly was arabisé and Islamized, this zone, quasi autonomous compared to Dongola, being increasingly called Al-Husbands in the texts.

Although the tribes of the desert were the most active forces of destruction in this decline, the frequent campaigns of the Egyptian Mamelouks are documented much. One of the terms of the bakt was that Makuria was to ensure the safety of the southern border of Egypt against the raids carried out by tribes of the desert like the Bejas. Not being able more to ensure its role, the state of Makuria had to let the Egyptian armies intervene, being consequently let weaken a little more. In 1272 the sultan Mameluke Baybars invades Makuria after the king David {{Ier}} attacked the Egyptian city of Aidhab. This action marks the beginning of several decades of interventions of the Mamelukes in the Nubian businesses. But of the internal dissensions also seem to mark this period. The cousin of David 1st, Shekanda asserted the throne and went to Cairo to seek the support of the Mamelukes there. The latter approved its action and launched an invasion of Nubie in 1272, putting Shekanda on the throne. The king, Christian, signed an agreement of vassalage with Egypt and a garrison mamelouke settled in Dongola. After a few years of this occupation, Shamamun, another family member royal of Makuria, carried out a rebellion in order to drive out the Egyptian garrison of Dongola. He proposed in Egypt an increase annual tributes provided in the bakt in exchange of the cancellation of the contract that Shekanda had signed. As the armies mameloukes had extremely to make in other zones, the sultan of Egypt accepted this proposal.

After one period of peace, the king Karanbas did not regulate any more the payments envisaged and the Egyptians invaded the country again. It was the occasion for them to put on the throne a Moslem member of the royal dynasty. Aldine Sayf Abdullah Barshambu then began the conversion of the country to Islam and into 1317 the cathedral of Dongola was transformed into mosque. This action was rejected by the other leaders of Makuria and the country sank in anarchy. Whereas the campaigns were under control of the wandering tribes of the desert, monarchy kept only one control restricted on the capital and its periphery. The last proof of the existence of the royal family of Makuria is a call to the assistance going back to 1397.

In 1412 the tribe of the Awlad Kenz or Abu Kenz takes the control of Nubie and part of Egypt (until the thébaïde). They will reign as Masters until in 1517, date on which this territory was conquered and attached to the remainder of Egypt by the Othoman armies of the sultan Selim {{Ier}}.

Economy

The economic main activity of Makuria was agriculture, with annual harvests of Orge, of millet and of Datte S. the methods employed had been appreciably the same ones as those used for several millenia. Some irrigated ground small islands were spread out along the banks of the Nile, which fertilized them during its annual floods. A major technological advance is the Saqiya ( Noria ), a wheel with water allowing the irrigation, introduced at the time Roman where it made it possible to increase the surface cultivateds, the outputs and the population density. The traces of properties on the grounds, indicate that the ground was divided into small individual pieces rather than in common pieces as it is the case in a farming system seigneurial. The farmers lived in formed small villages of adjacent raw brick houses.

The manufactured production was primarily represented by the pottery, in particular in the town of Faras and weaving with Dongola. Workshops with local or regional vocation worked leather, metal and practiced the weaving of baskets, plaits or of sandals containing fibers of palm tree. Another activity of importance, exploitation of a gold mine in the hills of the Red Sea in the east of Makuria.

The trade was primarily based on the Troc because the state never seems to have adopted currency. However in north, the Egyptian coins were usually used. The trade with Egypt was particularly important. Of this one invaluable food products and transforms were imported. The slaves represented the principal export of Makuria. The slaves dispatched in north were not originating in Makuria but rather in zones of the south and the west of Africa. One knows only few things of the commercial relations of Makuria with the other areas of Africa. There exist some archaeological signs of contacts with zones of the west like the Darfur or the area of Kanem-Bornu. There seem to have been on the other hand many diplomatic contacts with the Christians of Ethiopia of south-east. For example, at the 10th century, Georgios {{II}} intervened in favor of the leader of the time (of which the name is not known) and succeeds in persuading the Latin patriarch of Alexandria, Philoteos to equip the orthodoxe Ethiopian Église with a Abuna (metropolitan bishop). However there exists little of indices of a trade developed between these two Christian States.

Government

Makuria was a monarchy directed by a sitting king with Dongola. The king was also regarded as a priest and could say the mass. The methods of the successions are not clear. The first writings indicate a succession of the load of wire father. After the 11th century, it however seems that a transmission with the nephew by the maternal uncle is adopted as that was practiced since unmemorable times in the country of Kush. The historian Shinnie proposes that the late form of succession was always used but that the first Arab writings badly interpreted it by bringing it closer to the system traditional Patrilinéaire which is theirs.

The hierarchy under the authority of the king is very badly known. A great quantity of officers, generals, making use of Byzantine names are mentioned in the texts, but their role is never described there. A character is known a little better, thanks to the found documents with Qasr Ibrim indicating that the Eparch of Nobatia seems to have been viceroy of this area after his annexation by Makuria. The chronicles of Eparch show in a clear way that it was responsible for the trade and the diplomacy with the Egyptians. The oldest writings indicate that Eparch was named by the king but later notes seem to show than the load became hereditary. Perhaps this load was transformed into title of Seigneur of the horses , which will direct thereafter the area of Al-Husbands, autonomous region which will pass then under Egyptian control.

It seems that the bishop S also played a part in the government. Ibn Selim el-Aswani reports that before the king validates his mission, it met a made up council bishops. El-Aswani describes a state strongly centralized, but for other chroniclers it was about a confederation of thirteen kingdoms chaired by the king of Dongola. It is very difficult to distinguish what could be reality, but the kingdom of Dotawo of which it is made many times mention in the writings of Qasr Ibrim could be one of these federate kingdoms.

Religion

One of the topics most discussed among the researchers relates to the religion applied to Makuria. Until the 5th century it seems that the religion of Méroé remained prevalent, whereas it disappeared in Egypt. At the 5th century, the Nubians launch a forwarding to Egypt, during which the Christians tried to transform the principal temples into churches. The archaeological discoveries for this period comprise many Christian reasons in Nubie, which for some indicates that conversion evoked above was already in hand. For others these ornamentations are more the sign of the faith of the Egyptian manufacturers than of that of the Nubian purchasers.

Final conversion will be done with the support of missions during the 6th century. The Byzantine Empire decided to dispatch emissary to convert the kingdoms with the faith chalcédonienne, but the empress Théodora according to some would have conspired to delay the departure of the mission to make it possible a group of monophysites to be the first arrived on the spot. Jean d' Éphèse reports that the monophysites succeeded in converting the kingdoms of Nobatia and Alodia, but that of Makuria will remain at the very least hostile. Jean de Biclarum affirms that Makuria will embrace the Byzantine faith more tardily. The archaeological parts seem to show a fast conversion constant by an official adoption of the new religion. Thousand-year-old traditions like the construction of elaborate tombs and the hiding of expensive object with the late one are given up and the temples through all the area seem to be transformed into churches. It also seems that new churches were built in all the cities and villages.

After this period, the evolution of Christianity in Makuria is more dubious. It is allowed that at the 7th century Makuria adopts officially the religion Copte and recognizes the authority of the patriarch of Alexandria. The king of Makuria becomes the defender of this last while intervening in an occasional way to protect it as did it Kyriakos into 722. This time sees also absorption by Makuria melkite of Nobatia Copte and the historians were astonished a long time that the conquerors adopted the faith of their rivals. It is clear that the Egyptian copte influence in the area was strong and that the Byzantine power declined and this opposition could play a part in the adoption of one or the other of obediences. Certain historians are also divided to know if this fact marks the end of the opposition melkisme/copte because there exist evidence of the subsistence of a persistent minority melkite until the fall of the kingdom.

The Church of Makuria was organized in seven dioceses: Kalabsha, Qupta, Qasr Ibrim, Faras, Sai, Dongola, and Suenkur. Contrary to the Ethiopia there did not exist national authority and each of the seven bishops received its orders directly of the patriarch of Alexandria. The bishops were named by the patriarch and not by the king, even if it seems that they for their majority were chosen among Nubians rather than among Egyptians.

Another difference compared to Egypt, there does not exist proof of a Monachisme in Makuria. According to Adams only three sites can be identified in an unquestionable way as being Monastère S. All three are of small size and offer the signs of a copte influence what can suggest that they were created by Egyptian refugees than by the originating ones in Makuria.

The end of Christianity in Makuria is not clear, but a part of the puzzle is brought by an account of voyage of Francisco Alvarez, which made party of the court of the emperor Lebna Dengel of Ethiopia and tells that a Christian embassy of Nubie asked for in the years the 1520 supply of priors, bishops and other clerks in order to try to maintain Christianity in their country. Lebna Dengel refused the assistance required under pretext that the bishops were named by the patriarch of Alexandria and that themselves were to go there in order to require assistance of him.

Culture

Nubie Christian woman has a long time was regarded as negligible quantity mainly because its tombs were of small size and lacked furniture of the former times. The researchers of the modern time realized that this situation was the fact of a cultural originality and which Makuria had in fact a rich and alive culture.

One of most important discovered into low-Nubie of the emergency protection plan (before the setting in water) is the cathedral of Faras. This imposing building, entirely covered by sands, preserved a series of very beautiful paintings. Other paintings (although less well preserved) were discovered in other sites of Makuria of which palate or private residences, thus allowing to apprehend in a broader way art of Makuria. The style and the topics are strongly influenced by the Art Byzantine like by art copte and Palestinian. As a large majority of inspiration nuns, they describe the scenes traditional of the Christian art. One also finds paintings representing of kings de Makuria, of the bishops to the skin notably darker than that of biblical characters.

The Nubian pottery at this period is also remarkable. Shinnie describes it like “richest of the indigenous potteries of the African continent”. The historians differentiate three times for the pottery:

the early period from 550 to 650 (according to Adams) or 750 (according to Shinnie) is represented by potteries rather simple and similar to those of the Low Roman Empire. It is also characterized by the importation of Egyptian potteries. Adams suspects that this trade ended with the invasion of 652, Shinnie connects it to the fall Omeyyades into 750;
the intermediate period sees the local production increasing with like centers the town of Faras. At this period, which will last until about 1100, the potteries were painted floral reasons and zoomorphes and shows Umayyades influences and even Sassanides;
the late period, during the decline of the kingdom, again sees lowering the local production with the profit of Egyptian imports. The potteries produced on the spot are ornamented but a better control of the temperatures of cooking makes it possible to obtain various clay colors.

Various languages were spoken in Makuria. In the first centuries, when the Byzantine influence was large, the Greek was the first written language and probably that used by the royal court. The Greek continued to be used in the following times for the liturgy or of the ceremonial goals as on much of tomb stones. However the more recent inscriptions show many grammatical and orthographical errors, signs of a weakened control of this language. One can as suppose as the Ancien Nubian, which was the language of the people, becomes the principal written language. The translations of the Bible and other religious texts are largely widespread. An Arab traveller affirms that Nobatia and Makuria spoke about the different languages. The majority of the documents available come from Nobatia and the language seems to be the ancestor of the Nobiin currently spoken in the area.

Adams notes that the old borders between Makuria and Nobatia are close to the current linguistic border between the nobiin and the dongolawi. Another language was widespread in Makuria, the Copte. The relations were strong with the Christians of Egypt and Makuria seems to have additional amount used the religious literature copte. Makuria also received the regular surges of Christian refugees of Egypt speaking the copte. In the last years of the kingdoms, the Arab started to occupy a major place. The Arab tradesmen were numerous in the area and Arabic seems to be become the commercial language. Progressively of the establishment of these tradesmen, each town of some importance sees developing an Arab district.

Leaders

NB: the dates given are dubious for the large majority of the leaders connus.

Merkurios (C. 697-c. 722)
Zacharias {{Ier}} (C. 722-?)
Simon
Abraham (C. 744)
Markos (C. 744)
Kyriakos (C. 750)
Mikael (C. 790)
Johannes
Zacharias {{III}} (C. 822-c. 854)
Ali Baba (C. 854)
Israel
Georgios {{Ier}} (C. 872-c. 892)
Asabyos (C. 892)
Istabanos
Kubri (C. 943)
Zacharias {{IV}}
Georgios {{II}} (C. 969)
Simeon
Rafael (C. 1002)
Georgios {{III}} (? - 1080)
Salomo (1080-1089)
Basileios (1089-1130)
Georgios {{IV}} (1130-1171)
Brace (1171-1210)
Yahya (1210-1268)
David {{Ier}} (1268-1274)
David {{II}} (1274-1276)
Shakanda (1276-?)
Masqadat (? - 1279)
Barak (1279-1286)
Samamun (1286-1293)
Amai (1304-1305)
Kudanbes (1305-1324)

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