Latrine

Terminology

If the word aged in the developed countries where one speaks more usually about Toilette S , there remains usually used in the Developing country and sometimes in the rural areas of the developed countries. The form in the plural (“of the latrines”) is more often used in France but the form in the singular (“a latrine”), perceived as aged, is used preferably in other French-speaking countries, in particular in Africa and Haiti.

The distinction between toilets and latrines is not always obvious. If a simple hole in the ground surrounded by covers is clearly a latrine, and if a cabinet with Chasse of water connected to the sewers is clearly a Toilette, certain types as a latrine with hydraulic siphon connected to a Septic tank can be difficult to classify. Name depends especially on the context, and the type of evacuation of the excreta available in the vicinity. Another way of classifying is to consider that a latrine is generally located outside the Maison, and the toilet inside.

The neologism “latrinisation” is sometimes employed in the development in order to indicate a program including the development of the latrines. The latrinisation belongs to the process of Assainissement basic which includes the evacuation of the excreta, the drainage of rain and Waste water, and the evacuation of the Déchet S solids.

There exists also the Canadianisme “Bécosse”.

Utility

A latrine has two principal functions:

to ensure the Health of its users by allowing the evacuation of the excrements in a hygienic way;
to ensure the protection of the Environment by containing the Pathogenic S excreted.

The various types of latrines ensure these two roles more or less well. Thus, a badly maintained latrine will badly fulfill its role of hygienic protection; the type of ground and the proximity of the Ground water will complicate the environmental risks.

However, a latrine also has other functions from the point of view of the user, and these functions are often more important besides at the time of the choice of the acquisition of a latrine or improvement of the existing system, much more than the health reasons. A latrine makes it possible to profit from intimacy, a crucial point in particular for the Femme S (in certain cultures, they should not be seen active making their needs); the defecation in the open air is also associated with a lower statute, it is symptom of Pauvreté, while the use of a latrine makes it possible to preserve or regain some Dignité. A latrine is also an element of the Culture: not to have some can cause shame when visitors are received, to have some can cause prestige. In the same way, to have of a type of latrine “improved” or a toilet can also give some Social status.

History

Antiquity

Elements of a latrine

A latrine is made up of several elements:

a pit, in the case of a latrine dries, or a system of evacuation of the excreta; the pit can be reinforced or not, in Béton or Maçonnerie.
a flagstone, out of concrete or Wood, pierced with a hole and possibly covered with a seat. When the people squatted themselves, of the sites are designed to pose the feet and not to dirty them.
a superstructure, which in its simplest form consists of branches and covers, but can also take the form of a maisonnette out of wooden or bricks. The superstructure is covered with a roof and can include/understand various elements such as a door, a ventilation shaft leading to the pit, sometimes an arrival of water outside.

In addition to these attributes, a latrine will have additional elements according to its type (see below): hydraulic Siphon, sometimes a water hunting when it is possible, a contiguous site of shower, as well as the systems of evacuation of the excreta.

Different types

The latrines can be classified overall according to three criteria:

On the one hand, if the deposit of the excreta is made on the spot or if the excreta are evacuated;
In addition, if the pit is dry or wet, therefore if there is water addition to the excreta or not.
Or if they are integrated building or not.

An additional factor intervenes, which is the number of people using the latrine. One then speaks about latrine public for a nonrestricted and possibly paying use, and about latrine private or family when the latrine is intended for only one hearth.

Latrines dry

A simple hole dug in the ground and covered following the defecation is in general not regarded as a “latrine”. One needs that the pit reaches a reasonable depth, about 50 centimetres for one meter, so that the name is deserved.

A Latrine with simple pit is the basic type but also undoubtedly most widespread. It is about a pit dug in the ground, often reinforced in its high part in order to avoid the collapse of the latrine; the pit is covered with branches and ground for the simple models, or with a bored concrete flagstone of a hole if the means allow it. If it is about the simplest type of latrine, he allows already a good control of the diseases related to the excreta, for little that a regular maintenance is carried out. The Odor S and the Mouche S continue to pose problem.

The Latrine improved with ventilated pit more often called VIP is an improvement of the preceding type, developed in Southern Africa. It consists in adding a Ventilation outside pit (generally in the shape of a pipe of PVC 4"), surmounted by a grid anti-insects. This latrine allows a much better control of the odors and flies, but requires a construction of better quality and more maintenance.

The latrines with borehole are similar to the latrines with simple pit but, instead of a pit of approximately 1m of diameter, have a narrower pit, drilled in a mechanical way. This way of doing has many disadvantages: risk collapse of the walls, odors more present because the excrements can remain hung to the walls, filling faster even if the hole is deep, easier contamination of the ground water. This type is employed in the event of humane urgency because it is relatively fast to dig.

The latrines with bucket simply consist in making its needs in a Seau, covered when it is not used in order to avoid the bad smells. The bucket is then emptied periodically in an adapted place. In spite of the great health hazards imposed to the bouncers as with the users, one still finds such latrines, that it is for traditional reasons (as in India where the caste of the Intouchable S.A. for traditional role to empty the latrines) or for reasons of lack of place, in particular in the Bidonville S.

Lastly, there exist various types of ecological latrines, where the goal is to let put back the matter a certain time, sometimes by separating the Urine and/or by adding other matters (Cendre S, organic waste) to support the process of composting. It is then possible to re-use the compost, which avoids polluting the environment.

wet Latrines

In certain bidonvillized urban areas close to a River or Sea, it is current to see “latrines” consisting simply of a wood assembly covered with covers and fabrics overhanging water, where people will make their needs. That poses health hazards for the people living downstream, ecological for the live animals in water, and of safety for the most vulnerable users (children, elderly) who can fall. This system is sometimes the only feasible one in certain poor communities.

The Latrine with hydraulic siphon is the simplest type of latrine with wet pit: compared to a latrine with simple pit, it simply consists in adding a Siphon to the flagstone. The siphon makes it possible to stop the bad smells and the Insecte S and thus ensures of better hygienic conditions. It is enough to two to three liters of water to evacuate the matters. This kind of latrines is adapted to the places where people use water for anal cleaning, bulky objects not being able to pass; it is also necessary to have a water supply sufficient, difficult to find in the arid, rural and badly served regions.

By adding a discharge pipe to such a latrine, it is possible to create various alternatives. For example, it is possible to place the pit at the variation of the superstructure and to optimize the use of space; one can also have two pits, one used while the other is closed so that the pathogenic ones are absent and that draining can be done without average mechanics. It is also possible to connect the latrine to a Septic tank; if this makes operation more practical for the user, it does not remove the problems of draining and adds the problem of the evacuation of the liquid fraction; the septic tanks are especially used in rural area.

One can also connect such a latrine to a network of sewer if there exists, or with simplified sewerage system or low diameter if that is suitable. It is about an expensive solution and in general reserved for the planned urban whole of long time; one touches here in extreme cases with a system of toilets connected to network of complex cleansing.

Lastly, one can mention the system “ Aqua-privy ”, in which the pit entirely tight and is filled with water; a conduit makes it possible to evacuate the overflow by the side, while the solid matters accumulate at the bottom. On the ground, this system was a disaster: either blocked and overflowing, or lack water and thus nauseous, it required a great financial investment with construction.

latrines suspended

In the castle-forts or certain houses on several floors, the latrines are installed in a tiny part of stage, forming an outgrowth on the frontage. The excrements are thus evacuated directly outside and downwards or fall are recovered in ventilated pits. For example with the Castle of Coucy, XIIIe century, there were latrines envisaged on each floor of the Donjon and turns to avoid the relants unpleasant which still empestèrent many castles badly equipped, to start with the Château of Versailles, and that up to one recent time, since at the XIXe century, about the time of the king Louis XVIII, one still complained about the corridors of the Château of Saint-Cloud.

Latrines public

The latrines public have two possible aspects typically: the first is the alignment of a series of individual cabins grouped in only one place, type running in the school S where a great number of users is likely to use the latrines at the same time. The other type consists in having only one room divided into two parts (men and women), each one comprising several seats or sites without their use not being inevitably very intimate. This type is more usually seen close to the Marché S.

The installation of a public latrine is in general justified for economic reasons (to serve a maximum of people by a minimal investment) and of profit of space: in the zones densément populated, the installation of a latrine by family quickly proves problematic. But very often, the latrines public suffer from a problem of management: so that they remain usable, it is necessary that a regular cleaning is made by an unspecified organization. Many experiments tend to prove that the local organizations are often more effective than the public services for that.

In the developing countries, it is very frequent to see unusable latrines public because of a lack of maintenance. The profitable initiatives in this field are rare; one can quote the Community latrines Sulabh in India, result of a co-operation public-private and an investment of his founder Bindeshwar Pathak, being used 12 million as customers daily.

Filling and draining of the pit

Situation in the world

world Cover

The world cover of the basic cleansing shown on the chart above comes from an estimate carried out by the Toilets & Sanitation Programme in 2002 (the World Bank connects) by using various sources. In this context, the “basic cleansing” corresponding to the access to “a system of evacuation of the excreta improved”, which includes connections to a sewerage system, with a septic tank, a latrine with hydraulic siphon, simple pit or ventilated improved pit. On the other hand, do not form part of the “improved” systems the latrines public or divided, the latrines with open sky (case of many latrines with simple pit), the latrines with bucket and obviously the defecation in the open air, out of plastic sachet, etc

Methodology used point its own weaknesses, and in particular the difficulty that there is to estimate the practices of the people with respect to the defecation, sensitive topic. So Enquête S on the level of the households are often used, action to the “official” figures inevitable and is brought a certain optimism into the results: the districts known as illegal are often ignored as it is the case of many shantytowns.

Another source of error is to estimate that a hearth has a basic cleansing when it has one of the types of latrines already mentioned; but this is unaware of the very many latrines full, demolished, flooded or unusable of another way. Thus, of the rates of 50% of unusable latrines are not rare in many places, of maintenance or a system of draining well in place. Lastly, these figures do not include the cover of the channels of drainage or evacuation of solid waste, however essential to a basic cleansing and human dignity.

Developing countries and less advanced

According to the same source of the WSP, the cover of the basic cleansing in the Developing country reached 73% in the urban areas and 31% in the rural areas for an average of 48%, in 2002; but only 18% of the hearths had a connection to a sewer. In the the least advanced Countries, the cover falls to 57% in the urban areas and 27% in the rural areas for an average from 35%, and 2% of connections to a sewer. On the whole, that represents more than 2,5 billion people not served by a system improved in the worldwide under development, number to be probably increased within sight of the reserves detailed higher.

The consequences are disastrous as well at the medical level as on the level of human dignity. The not improved methods of defecation are principal the persons in charge of féco-oral diseases such as the Diarrhée: the 4,4 billion annually reported cases of diarrhea involves more than 2,2 million per annum dead, mainly of the children of less than 5 years. The purpose of the Development objectives of Millenium fixed in 2002 at Johannesburg were to reduce half the proportion of people without basic cleansing in 1990 (that is to say 51%) from here 2015, and to ensure the access to all in 2025. For the objectives of 2015, this would not only mean to build 378 000 latrines per day, but also to ensure the maintenance and the maintenance of the existing structures: reality in is still far”

Development and brakes

In the developing countries, the extension of the cover of the latrines is not spring single of the individuals but often formed part of a national plan, often supported by local and international ONG. One observes however that the cleansing is frequently a poor relation of other ministries, divided between the public health, public works, water, etc

The programs of development still pain to include the cleansing like a component-key: the access to water is more often quoted, rising on the one hand from the emotivity caused by the evocation of a person without water make following the failure traditional programs too often controlled by the offer available and the market. Such an approach was already started following the Water and Sanitation Decade , following which one of the lessons was to direct itself towards approaches based on the request.

The fact that the defecation is a sensitive topic is also a factor explaining the little of passion in this field: the givers like the recipients remain reticent to tackle a subject which is often supposed not to leave the private sphere. Lastly, there exists a certain number of false ideas about the latrinisation, which however remain usually allowed in the world of the development: the fact that the recipients wish to have a latrine for a better health (whereas the intimacy, the prestige or the absence of odors are more current reasons); the fact that water and the cleansing must always go hand in hand; or equality between the construction of latrines and the improvement of health distorts it.

General references

Sandy Cairncross and R. Feachem, Environmental Health Engineering in the Tropics , 1993, Wiley & Sounds.
Duncan Mara, Low-cost Urban Sanitation , 1996, Wiley & Sounds.

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