Late antiquity

The expression late Antiquité is used to indicate one historical period which starts at the end of the 3rd century but whose completion date is much fuzzier. It is employed only in reference to the country having belonged to the Roman world, i.e. with the areas of Western and southernmost Europe, Asia and Africa around the Mediterranean basin but is prolonged well beyond the end of the Roman Empire of Occident in 476.

Late Antiquity is characterized by a mixture of ancient traditions - what the historians call the “romanity”, of Christian contributions and influences “Barbares”. the theological debates, the difficulties caused by the relations between the emperor and the Church, the development of the Christian buildings characterize the period. Late Antiquity constitutes one crucial period for the transmission of the culture, science, and more generally of all the knowledge accumulated by various ancient civilizations. It thus interests in more in the high point the historians who initially saw in it one period of decline to regard it from now on as one period hinge between Antiquité and the Middle Ages.

Late Antiquity starts with the advent of Dioclétien, when the Empire, while keeping its unit, is directed by two emperors to face the threats of invasion. At the beginning of the 5th century, the Germanic invasions involve in the old Western Empire the creation of transitory cruel kingdoms , but the old economic and social structures remain. To the east, the leave orientalis the Roman Empire continues to exist. It is only after the reign of Héraclius that it revêt a new character which inserts it on one level in the medieval period.

A recent subject of studies

In the traditional division of the history in periods, Antiquity was completed with the Germanic invasions and the dismissal of the last Roman Emperor of Occident, Romulus Augustule into 476. The Early empire regarded as the apogee of Roman civilization, Low succeeded as from the 4th century the Empire, regarded since the 18th century as one period of decline. Accordingly, the Germanic invasions with passed for a decisive change, sweeping the Roman company and founding a new social system.

In the middle of the 19th century, the French historian Fustel de Coulanges is the first to see a continuity between the 5th the following century and centuries. In 1901, in a book studying the craft industry of the late Roman Empire, the historian of Austrian art Aloïs Riegl rehabilitates the period by affirming that it is not declining and has its own unit. At the 20th century, the historians continue to revisit the centuries marking the passage of traditional Antiquity to the Middle Ages. In a book published in 1937, the Belgian medievist Henri Pirenne (1862-1935), defends the thesis of a continuity in the Mediterranean of. This thesis is initially criticized by the majority of the historians of Roman Antiquity. Those remain very attached to the idea of decline and decline and still see in the Early empire an ideal age corrupted by the imperial absolutism of the 4th century, the Christianisme and the cruel invasions. The course of Henri-Irenee Marrou (1904-1977) however illustrates the evolution of the historians on this subject: in 1937, it supports the idea of a decline of the ancient culture thus grinding itself in the diagrams of its time. After the Second world war, in a new edition of its thesis, it calls into question the concepts of decline and even of end of the ancient culture. Its posthumous book, Roman Decline or late Antiquity? gives a progress report on continuities and the ruptures of the Roman world. Today the study of late Antiquity requires the stepping of various disciplines in order to better apprehend its components: the installation of great legal codes like the code Théodose and the code Justinien, the permanence of the ancient culture and the development of the Christianity like religion of State.

If the historians agree for the majority that late Antiquity starts with the end of the crisis of the 3rd century and the advent of Dioclétien, various theses clash on the date of its end. The historians agree to say that the Germanic invasions were not the radical rupture that much had believed to see. As showed it the historian Peter Brown, certain features of the ancient culture remain beyond the 5th century. The invasion lombarde of Italy in 568 is sometimes retained. It corresponds at the end of the reign of Justinien (565) which marked a long time for the specialists in the Byzantine history, the passage of the Roman Empire of the East to the Byzantine Empire. However, according to the contemporary specialists, the Roman tradition remains rather well in the Byzantine Empire until the 7th century, time to which he is amputee of most of his territory under the attacks of the Arab and Slavic invasions, folding up itself then on its Greek identity. Moreover, the local situations vary largely in the old Western Empire: whereas the British Isles plunge in the “dark Âges” (“ ” in English) as of the 4th century, the bases of ancient civilization remain in the Iberian peninsula, in France, Italy and Germany until the 7th century.

Of a world linked with a burst romanity

Emperors of Bottom Empire (284-395)

The historians usually make begin Bottom Empire with the reign of Dioclétien (284-305). Its action fits certainly in the line of the emperors Aurélien and Probus, these energetic emperors of the 3rd century, but it posed with Constantin the bases of a strong monarchy characteristic of the period.

Dioclétien and the tétrarchie

A few months after its come to power, Dioclétien understands that it cannot direct only the Empire and entrusts to Maximien the responsibility to deal with the Occident as a César then of Auguste. In 293, it gives to Maximien an assistant who carries the title of César, Constance Chlorinates and itself of it one chooses, Galère. Thus the needs for the Empire give rise to the Tétrarchie, i.e. with the capacity with four where Dioclétien preserves preeminence. The stability of this team during twenty years allows the recovery and the deep reform of the Empire. There is no territorial division of the Roman Empire, but the four men are distributed the command of the troops and the sectors in which they intervene. They forsake Rome like capital. This new organization makes it possible to eliminate the usurpers who sowed the disorder in Gaulle, to push back the Francs and the Alamans always in Gaulle, the Moors in Africa, the Iazyges and the Carpes on the the Danube, the Perses in the East. The victory over the Sassanides reinforces the Roman presence in Mésopotamie with the constitution of five news provinces.

The interior policy of Dioclétien is in the line of that of the emperors of the 3rd century. Like Aurélien, it reinforces the deification of the imperial function. Like Valérien, he wants to support the return to the religions traditional polytheists from which the gods always protected the Empire, even if he is personally a follower of the worship of Mithra. At the end of its reign, in 297, it starts a persecution against the Manicheans, then into 303 the last of the persecutions against the Christians.

In 305, the two Majestic ones abdicate the same day to leave the place to their Césars, Galère and Constance Chlorinates, which become in their Augustes turn. Dioclétien chooses two new Césars, Maximin II Daïa and Sévère, deliberately drawing aside from the succession wire of Maximien and Constancy Chlorinates. By doing this, it joins again with the practice of the Antonins consisting in choosing the best like heirs and, while going to counter-current of hereditary logic, it causes the ruin of its system. Persia remains a threat in spite of the wars carried out by the Julien emperors and Jovien. Moreover, at the beginning of his reign, the emperor of the Valens East, brother of Valentinien Ier must manage the difficulties generated by the presence beyond the the Danube of the Goths converted with the Christianity arien. To died of Valentinien Ier, the capacity falls to his/her two young children Gratien and Valentinien II. Too much young people for really controlling, they leaves the capacity with the hands of their entourage, imperial family and large characters of the State. After the death of Valens at the time of the battles of Turkey-red cotton into 378, Gratien, which cannot only manage the Empire with him, chooses a new colleague for the East, Théodose.

Gratien adopts a resolutely hostile policy with the pagan ones. He endeavors, amongst other things, to release from the public life any polytheist influence. He thus removes any government aid with the pagan worships. He must face the hostility of the Nobilitas of Rome attached to the traditional religion. He is assassinated by Maxime into 383. This last is recognized Auguste for the Occident but is overcome by Théodose after having invaded Italy reserved for Valentinien II, the young brother of Gratien. The young man remains alone then Auguste of the Occident under the protection of the general frankly, Arbogast, Magister militum set up by Théodose. Valentinien II is found strangled into 392 and Arbogast proclaims emperor the pagan Rhéteur Eugene. In 394, Théodose overcomes this usurper with the Bataille of the Cold River where the two armies lose the essence of their forces. Whereas the barbarian danger is increasingly pressing, defenses of the Empire are weakened by these civil wars. In 395, Théodose dies, after having shared the Empire between its two sons. Arcadius, the elder one, receives the East and Honorius the Occident. This division is in the continuity of the preceding reigns. He wants to be purely administrative. The theoretical unit of the Empire is preserved. But the Occident of Honorius is weakened soon by the fight against the barbarians and the usurpations. It lost most of its troops. The economy of the Occident remains fragile whereas that of the East is flourishing. But the final distance of the two parts of the Empire results especially from the disagreement between the two courses imperial, which ratify the differences in economic and demographic evolution. This explains why the date of 395 remained symbolic system of the division of the Roman Empire. However, it is rather towards 408 qu' one can date the final partitio from the Empire. This year, Stilicon, tutor of the two young emperors, dissuades Honorius to take the head of the oriental party of the Empire with died from his/her Arcadius brother. It is the son of the latter, Théodose II which reigns on the East from 408 to 450.

Germanic invasions or migrations of Occident?

Romanity in the East

At the 5th century, the East knows one long period of economic prosperity. The imperial treasure abound in gold numerary. Under the reign of Théodose II (408-450), the continuous town of Constantinople to increase and receives a new enclosure, the wall of Théodose. A legal code is published, the code Théodose, applicable in all the parts of the Empire. However the Empire is destabilized by religious conflicts violent one, between nicéens and ariens and from 430 between nestoriens and monophysites. From 440, the Huns threaten the Byzantine Empire. A tribute and the granting of a Roman dignity with Attila makes it possible to move away the danger. Marcien, husband of Pulchérie, the sister of Théodose II reigns from 450 to 457. Leon I {{er}} is the first emperor of the East to receive the crown of the hands of the Patriarche of Constantinople. its grandson Leon II reigns only a few months. It is thus his/her son-in-law Zénon who revêt imperial purple during fifteen years from 476 to 491. It is under its reign that the last Roman Emperor of Occident Romulus Augustule is relieved by Odoacre. There thus remains the only emperor of the Roman world but its authority on the Occident is only theoretical. Under the reign of Anastase (491-518), the war against Persians begins again. The senate chooses then an officer Macedonian, Justin (518-527) of which the nephew, Justinien climbs all the levels of the administrative career. Justinien (527-565) devotes most of its reign to take again to the Barbarians the grounds romanity. He thinks that any ground which was Roman remains inalienably Roman. Dioclétien and Galère, his/her adoptive son, is claimed downward of Jupiter. They take the nickname of Jovien , his/her Maximien colleague like his Co-césar Constancy that of Herculien . The purpose of this sacralization of the imperial capacity is also to remove any legitimacy with the possible usurpers since only the emperor is elected gods, and that only its successor is legitimate. This ideology does not prevent Constantin then Maxence, wire of Majestic but isolated of being able, to dispute the news tétrarchie after the death of Constancy into 306.

Constantin, though affiliated with the line herculienne of tétrarques, deviates some as soon as it gets rid of Maximien into 310, with the profit from solar theology from Apollon and Sol Invictus. This one implies a capacity single and supreme and with the favor of the Western armies, which helps its ambitions. The currencies of Constantin testify to this solar ideology during a few years (see the image of the solidus). In 312, Constantin integrates the Christianisme into his ideology, and the two principles solar monotheists and Christians will cohabit until 324, when Constantin becomes the single Master of the Empire. According to Small Paul, the persistence of the solar symbols on the currencies of Constantin, and the neutral vocabulary but Panegyrical monotheist of the S pagan of 313 and 321, independently of an imperial attitude very favorable to the Christians, gave the required to spare all the factions as long as the victory over Licinius was not acquired. After his victory of 324, Constantin exchanges in his titulature the INVICTUS with solar connotation by VICTOR, while a currency of this date represents it with the emblem of Christ transpiercing a snake.

Because of his conversion, Constantin does not seek to affirm a divine filiation. He rather claims to be invested by God of the Christians to control the Empire. Currencies of 330 show a hand leaving the sky which tightens a crown to him; he is presented in the form of “a bishop of those of the outside” (i.e. those who are not clerks). Constantin affirms that he is the representative of God on the ground. In its intelligence is reflected the supreme intelligence, works out the Théologie Christian empire in several works, of which its panegyric of 335. The emperor receives also the mission of guide towards safety and the Christian faith. Its intervention growing in the religious questions is thus legitimated just as the Césaropapisme. In Occident, the spiritual power begins towards a larger autonomy vis-a-vis it political power. Ambroise poses the bases of the medieval theory of the separation of the two capacities outlining even the idea of a subordination of the political power to the spiritual power. It thus constrained Théodose to make penitence and to go barefeet in ash for expier the massacre of ten thousand people after the revolt of Thessalonique into 390. In the East, the emperors sail between cesaropapism and subordination to the spiritual power. Thus, in 450, the emperor Marcien is crowned emperor by the bishop of Constantinople Anatolius. Its successor Leon makes in the same way. It is thus the bishop who in the name of God makes the sovereign. One of the consequences of this ideology and the tender of the king to the Dogma S of the Church. The emperors do not give up however intervening in the businesses of the Church. Zénon publishes into 482, the edict of the Henotikon , of doctrinal nature, which aims at alleviating the religious conflicts on the nature of the Christ. This will of the sovereign to say the dogma raises an opposition in the East as in Occident. Justinien, at the 6th century, goes until removing and sequestering during seven years the pope Vigile to oblige it to subscribe to the positions defended by the II {{E}} council of Constantinople condemning the Monophysisme. Constant II in 653 fact of apprehending and of judging the pope Martin Ier, and Justinien II tries the same action against Serge Ier into 692 to impose the guns of the Concile in Trullo. But this time, the Roman militia defended the pope.

The dynastic principle set up by Constantin has as a consequence a weakening of the imperial capacity. Indeed, on several occasions, of the children arrived at the capacity at died of their father. It is the case of Gratien and Valentinien II, Arcadius and Honorius, Théodose II and Valentinien III into 423. The mothers of these young emperors then occupy an important political role like some prefects of the court.

The army

The number of soldiers per legion passed from: 6000 with: 5000 pennies the Early empire with probably: 2000 at the beginning of the reign of Dioclétien. This one increases the number by units. It is supposed that the Roman army of the 4th century counts between: 250000 and: 300000 men. An innovation of size is the recruitment of soldiers of barbarian origin to keep the Limes , the borders of the Empire. They supplement the army of operation.

The legions of operation are of more reduced size -: 1000 legionaries - but are more numerous than under the previous period. They pass from 39 to 60. They are charged to intercept the Barbarians who succeeded in crossing an increasingly strengthened border. The need for the defense of the Empire justifies the abandonment of Rome like imperial residence with the profit of cities closer to the borders: Trier, Milan, Sirmium, Nicomédie. Constantin completes the transformation of the army and sets up the Comitatus , the army of countryside. Its command is entrusted to a magister peditum for the infantry and a magister equitum for the cavalry. Where necessary, of the main of the militia can be created for a particular area as in Illyricum. In the exposed provinces and dioceses, the troops can be directed by a comes or a Dux . This army is particularly neat by the emperors.

To mitigate the difficulties of recruitment, Dioclétien forces new rules. The owners must from now on provide recruits to the Roman army. During the 4th century, they obtain the right to replace the recruits by a gold sum, the aurum tironicum . This system is removed into 375, but only for the East. A significant number citizens seeks to flee enrôlement in the army while leaving in the desert, while cutting the inch or while becoming Clerc. The heavy judgments towards the deserters, the heredity of the trade of soldier do not avoid the difficulties of recruitment, which pushes the emperors to call upon the barbarians.

In addition to the soldiers of the army of operation, Dioclétien and Constantin {{Ier}} recruit auxiliary of barbarian origin to take care on the files , the limitanei . They have to see little with the Roman spirit. The distinction between comitatus and limitanei gives rise to the Roman army of the Lower Empire. Under Théodose, the barbarian presence is reinforced, including in the stations of the high command, exerted by barbarians romanized such as Arbogast, Stilicon, Gaïnas. At the beginning of the 5th century, the army of Occident includes/understands theoretically: 200000 men at the borders, almost all of barbarian origin, and: 50000 men in the army of operation. The borders are then defended by soldiers resulting people which seek to invade the Empire.

At the 5th century, the Roman Empire of the East knows several anti-Germanic reactions which lead to the elimination of the cruel chiefs (Gaïnas in 400, assassination of Aspar in 471) and to exclude the German ones from the executives of the army. At the same time in 466, the emperors of the East substitute a source of indigenous recruitment to them, with the mountain dwellers isauriens, subjects of the Empire, ordered by Zénon, which becomes the son-in-law of the emperor Leon Ier and succeeds to him. The last federated in the East, directed by Théodoric, are sent on Italy into 489, which releases the East of their pressure.

Nevertheless, the German ones remain an important component of the imperial army, until the 7th century, but they are individually recruited as mercenaries, and are framed by imperial officers. The abandonment of the system of federated and the resumption of control of the armed forces allow the survival of the Byzantine Empire.

At the beginning of the 7th century, the financial crisis of the Byzantine Empire and the occupation of Balkans by the Slavic ones and Asia Mineure by Persians dry up the capacities of recruitment of mercenaries. Héraclius then reorganizes recruitment by the institution of peasant-soldiers . The territories still under imperial domination are gradually organized in military districts, ordered by a strategist, and receive the name of the topics, of the Greek name of the unit which stations there ( thema ). Military goods, which are allotted on a purely hereditary and inalienable basis with families, against an also hereditary military service are created there. This institution points out and generalizes that of old the limitanei frontier, gives finally the means of a powerful indigenous army and exemption to recruit foreign, expensive and not very sure mercenaries. The soldier-peasant is equipped and obtained a horse itself and perceives only one tiny pay, which still reduces the loads of the army. The army then does not miss any more soldiers, the resistance of the Byzantine tiny room is assured for the centuries to come.

Administration

Under Dioclétien, the distinctions between senatorial provinces and imperial provinces are removed. Into 297, the emperor divides them into smaller entities, making them pass from 47 to more than 100. These new provinces are gathered in 12 diocese S directed by equestrian Vicaire S which obey directly the emperors. This multiplication of the administrative units and the administrative levels is perceived as being more effective to fight against the evils of the Empire. In 312, one counts 108 provinces, 116 into 425. Constantin operates a reform of the prefecture of the court which does not occupy any more central administration. It divides the Empire into large districts whose limits are fluctuating, the regional prefectures with at their head a Préfet of the court. The prefects have great civil and legal prerogatives there. Each administrative level - regional prefecture, diocese, province - has its capital, its offices, its civils servant. The imperial capacity is thus more present at each level, but the wage bill of the civils servant is multiplied by four and the great capacities which they have are factors of autonomy and corruption.

Constantin transforms also the organization of the central capacity which was remained appreciably the same one since the Early empire. The prefect of the court is replaced by the questeur of the crowned Palate which writes the edicts. This one directs the crowned consistory, which replaces the council of the emperor. The Master of the offices directs administrative staff, the arms factories and the scholæ of the guard; the Master of the militia, the infantry and cavalry; the count of crowned generosities, tax department; the count of private fortune, LMBO privata , i.e. the private case of the emperor, personal incomes of this last being resulting primarily from the income of its immense fields. The great innovation is however the great increase in the civils servant working in the central offices. A crowd of notaries, secret agents (the agentes in rebus ), nearly 1000 civils servant at the 5th century, and to various employees make Roman Empire a true bureaucracy. This plethoric central administration contributes to the insulation of the emperor of the remainder of the company. All these institutions remain about the same ones until the beginning of the 7th century. For a long time, the emperors endeavor to maintain the separation of the civil capacities, entrusted to a governor, and the military capacities entrusted to a comes or a Dux , this last dealing with several provinces. But at the time of Justinien, the reforms carry in germ the meeting of the civil and military capacities in the topics or the Exarchat S of the Byzantine period. Justinien gathers the provinces, only during fifteen years admittedly between the hands of proconsuls or propréteurs in their giving military, civil and sometimes tax capacities. Its objective is to stop the growing power of the nobility.

The taxation

Finances before are very intended to support the army. The military annone was gradually installation starting from the dynasty of the Sévères. To face the increased expenditure, the emperor orders into 298 whom are listed, all resources of the Empire, men, cattle and other richnesses. This census, which takes place every five years, is used as a basis to establish the plate of a new tax, the Capitation. Moreover, they must pay the jugatio on the land goods. The payment is done either in kind, or in cash according to a correspondence preestablished on a regional level by a scale of price. This taxation based on the land property weighs primarily on the inhabitants of the campaigns. It is supplemented of a land reform, by the forced attribution of the grounds given up with private individuals, who become the taxable colonists about it.

Constantin increases the national expenditure by his many administration, his multiple constructions, the gifts with its protected and the Church, the luxurious expenditure of the court. He gets gold necessary by imposing those which capitation saves: the chrysargyre is raised every five years on the tradesmen and the craftsmen, the curiales are fixed to offer every five years coronary gold (gold crowns), the senators must discharge gold oblatice ( aurum oblaticium , but offered to each imperial birthday) and collatio glebalis every four years.

These reforms align public finances on the circulation of gold, and restore them for all IVe century in spite of the considerable increase of the expenditure, at the price of a collusion between the capacity and the higher classes, thésaurisatrices of gold, and the ruin of the lower classes.

Under the reign of Théodose, the taxation still hardens causing revolts (Antioche in 387). In theory, the incomes of LMBO privata must provide for the court and the imperial family, but a growing share of this case is reserved for the immense needs for the State. Anastase detaches part of the fields of the LMBO privata whose incomes join those of the tax department. It abolishes the chrysargyre which struck the trade and the industry of the cities, and entrusts the perception of the tax of the cities to civils servant, relieving the ruined curiales.

Whereas the money circulation slows down considerably in Occident because of the Great invasions, it increases in the East: Anastase definitively imposes on the campaigns the payment of the annone ( capitatio and jugatio ) in cash, and buys the provisioning necessary to the State at prices imposed by the government. Tax severity caused popular revolts, but with died of Anastase, the imperial cases contained a considerable reserve of 320.000 visitors' books.

The cost of the conquests of Justinien cause a new tax turn of screw until 550. Dissatisfaction is large. Indeed, the emperor takes in Eastern campaigns weakened by the devastations of the Peste of the very heavy taxes. The lately reconquered provinces lost the practice to pay heavy taxes under the barbarian administration unable to take them regularly. They must be subjected again to this obligation whereas they leave completely ruined wars of conquest. After 550, because of increase in the population in the Empire of Justinien, the tax levies tend to decrease.

Christianity in the Roman world

Questions raised by the christianization of the Roman Empire

The progression of the Christianisme in the Empire is prone to new debates. Indeed, the sources at the disposal of the historians make difficult the quantification of the development of Christianity. For a long time the idea prevailed that at the beginning of the 4th century, the provinces of the East are mainly acquired with Christianity. In Occident, the Mediterranean provinces are touched by the new religion than the others. But everywhere in this part of the Roman Empire, the campaigns remain deeply polytheists. Accordingly, the conversion of Constantin into 312 would have been only one crowning, and not a turning of the history of the Empire. Today the extent of the christianization of the Empire is called in question. Robin Lane Fox thinks that paganism is very always well established at the beginning of the 4th century and that Christianity is still a very minority phenomenon. According to him the Christians represent into 312, only 4 to 5% of the total population of the Empire. The debate is all the more delicate as, behind the figures, there is an ideological stake extremely.

Certain points seem nevertheless established. The inequality of christianization according to the areas and the delay of Gaulle in particular are admitted by all. With a less degree, the situation is the same one in Spain and Italy, but with in addition to strong regional differences. One thinks that of Rome, the most christianized city of Italy, perhaps a little less than 10% of the inhabitants are Christian into 312. The study of the Egyptian papyruses allows the figure of 20% of Christians into 312 in Egypt. In Minor Asia, a proportion of 1/3 of Christians is possible, 10 to 20% in Africa. In 312, the Christians are thus only one minority in the Empire. G. Stroumsa explains the passage of paganism to Christianity in the Roman Empire by a process of interiorization of the worship. A significant part of the inhabitants of the empire, is not recognized any more in the ritualistic religions and seek a belief which is more personal. The rise of the religions of the book thanks to the generalization of the Codex is used as accelerator with a new concern of oneself present in the asceticism and the reading, with the passage of the civic religion to the Community and private religions. This thesis does not achieve the unanimity among the historians.

Christianity, while becoming the religion of the Roman Empire at the 4th century, is used to justify an authoritative political order which is exerted in the name of God. It also allows, with the eyes of the emperors to ensure the cohesion of the Empire. It becomes an essential component of the civilization of late Antiquity. The consequence is the exclusion of all the other religious convictions. The not-Christians from now on are disunited Roman ideal. For the Church of Occident, romanity and Christianity are so indissociable that the bishops find normal to defend the Empire vis-a-vis the barbarians.

Great persecution

At the beginning of the 4th century, with Tétrarchie, the fight against the religion of the Christians, expanding but still very minority. This call is in the right wire of the Roman religious tradition, and admits the civic utility of the Christians.

One of the consequences of the great persecution for the Christian world is the schism donatist from 307. The donatists refuse validity of the sacraments delivered by the bishop S which had failed at the time of persecutions of Dioclétien, position condemned into 313 to the council of Rome. The Schisme continues in Roman Africa until the end of the century.

This last persecution marks more than the others the Eastern Christian tradition: the Hagiographie positions at the time of the persecution of Dioclétien and its successors the martyrdom of saints of legendary existence. Another trace of the significant impact on the Christian memory, is the choice of the era copte or “era of the Martyrs” which begins at the date from advent from Dioclétien.

Christian emperors

Constantin, at the beginning follower of Ground invictus (Unconquered Sun), is converted with the Christianisme at the time of its countryside against Maxence into 312. Certain historians think that Constantin could, between 312 and beginning of the year 320, to pass in its personal convictions through an intermediate phase and to try to reconcile Christianity and a divinity from where all the gods would emanate, the Divinity , identified starting from medium of the 3rd century to the Sun. Indeed, during time 312-325, of the currencies represent the Sun, companion of the emperor, or confuses his image with his. Few currencies show Christian symbols (Chrisme, Labarum) at the end this amount of time, or for ideological reasons. In 313, the edict of Milan proclaims freedom of worship and envisages to return to the Christians the goods which had been confiscated to them during large the Persécution of Dioclétien. This conversion poses the problem of the relations between the Church and the capacity. Solicited by African bishops on the donastic quarrel, Constantin organizes into 313 (or 314) the first council so that the bishops decide between them. He convenes and chairs the council of Nicée into 325 which recognizes the Christ like God and man unanimously, even Arius agreeing to these doctrines. But this last continues its preaching and is excommunicated. Constantin makes it exile, then points out it later a few years. The ariens adopt positions very favorable to the imperial capacity, recognizing the right to him to solve the religious questions of authority. Constantin ends up approaching this form of Christianity and is made baptize on his bed of dead by a Prêtre arien. Gratien ends up being directed towards a judgment of the arianism under the combined influence of his/her colleague Théodose and Ambroise. The emperor of the leave orientalis has, into 380, in the edict of Thessalonique, makes Christianity a religion of State. Like his colleague, it promulgates laws anti-heretics. He convenes a council with Aquilée, into 381, directed by Ambroise. Two bishops ariens are excommunicated. At this time, the Catholic church became enough strong to resist the imperial court. After the death of Gratien, the party arien is again very influential at the court. At its instigation, a law, on January 23rd, 386 is promulgated, which envisages the capital punishment for any person who would oppose freedom consciences and worships. Ambroise refuses to extremely concede a basilica extra muros with the ariens of the support of the people and higher realms of Milan. The imperial court is obliged to yield. Thanks to men like Ambroise, the Church thus can émanciper of the imperial supervision, especially in Occident and to even assert the primacy of the spiritual power on the temporal one by recalling to the emperor his duties of Christian. However, the Christians need also the police force to make prevail their point of view. Thus Porphyre of Gaza obtains from the empress Eudoxie, whom it makes close by her husband Arcadius the temples polytheists of Gaza.

The pagan ones, the heretics and the Jews become second-class citizens, burdened with legal and administrative incapacities. In a precise law, Théodose: “Let us remove We to them faculty even food according to the Roman law. ”. It should however be noted that the Judaism is the only religion not-Christian woman to remain licit into 380. On the old bottom of judéophobie gréco-Roman is grafted a properly Christian Antijudaïsme, showing the Jews to be deicides and to have rejected the message evangelic. That does not prevent Théodose from wanting to force the bishop of Callinicum in Mésopotamie to rebuild with its expenses, the Synagog that its faithful destroyed, with the great indignation of Ambroise of Milan

Christianization and romanity

After the conversion of Constantin, Christianity progresses quickly in the Roman Empire but always in an unequal way according to the provinces. It also acts in many cases of a surface christianization where mix a great number of pagan practices. The evangelization of the Occident campaigns only progresses very slowly. As a Gaulle, the action of determined missionaries plays a considerable part in the adoption of the religion of Christ. Saint Martin remains the figurehead of the evangelization of the Gaulle. In Occident, the Latin replaces the Greek like liturgical language at the same time, signs loss of the use of the Greek in this part of the Empire. Egypt is regarded as Christian woman only at the end of the 5th century.

The organization of the Church

The Church is organized while following the administrative model of the Empire. The Diocese where the bishop officiates, corresponds to the city, except in Africa and Egypt. This one is indicated by the members of the community and the bishops close. The christianized aristocracy often occupies the functions of bishop. Because of failure of the municipal elites, reducing of the too heavy and too expensive responsibilities, they become the first characters of the city with. In the East, they become thus partners of the imperial capacity. They take again for the Church a share of the evergetism décurional for the assistance with the poor and the patients. Where necessary, they set up as a defender of their city threatened vis-a-vis the barbarians. With Rome, they take the step on the urban prefects. In Egypt, on the other hand, the bishops are generally selected among the monks. Some cumulate the role of bishop and superior of the monastery like Abraham d' Hermonthis, about year 600. Many Christian popes coptes come from the monastery of holy Macaire located at Wadi El-Natroun. Today, the hierarchy of the Church Copte is always recruited among the monks.

As from the 5th century, a new character is detached from the évêché, the Prêtre. He obtains little by little the right to baptize, preach and teach. Whereas the cities of Occident are emptied of their population because of the difficulties of supply and the insecurity, a new rural religious cell develops at the 6th century, the Paroisse in which he officiates. The parish ends up forcing the basic administrative grid of the Middle Ages.

Above the bishops the metropolitan bishop is which sits in the chief town of the province and whose authority gets along with the whole of this one. Starting from council of Constantinople of 381, primacies appear which gather under their authority several provinces; in Occident, Rome and Carthage; in the East, Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioche. During the 4th century, the head office of Rome starts to establish its primacy on the whole of the Empire. In 370, Valentinien I {{er}} declares irrevocable the decisions of the Pape in Rome. The pope Damase (366-384) is the first prelate to qualify his diocese of apostolic seat because it is the only one to be created by an apostle, Pierre, to be regarded as the chief of the apostles. The pontifical authority truly became sovereign only starting from Leon Large the towards 450. In the East as in Occident, the Church is found however confronted with a paradox; it is rich, but preaches poverty like ideal.

Monachism

During late Antiquity, the Monachisme, born at the 3rd century makes first great strides. The first monks appear in Egypt, in the south of Alexandria. The radical withdrawal of the world that the first Ermite S preach, Antoine and Pacôme, is a true political and social rupture with the ideal gréco-Roman of the city. This does not prevent the eremitism then the Cénobitisme from developing in the deserts of the East. However it seems that the true founder of the cenobitic lifestyle is Pacôme. At the beginning of the 4th century, it establishes first a community with Tabennae, an island on the the Nile halfway between Cairo and Alexandria. It founds eight others Monastère S in the area during its life, adding up: 3000 monks.

The Western clerks who go in the East propagate on their return the ideal monachist. The first religious establishments appear in the West of the Empire starting from the end of the 4th century: the abbey Saint Martin's day in Marmoutier, Honorat with Lérins and of multiple foundations as from the 6th century. From the first experiments are worked out many monastic rules. Among those, the rule of Saint Benoit is intended for a great future in Occident.

With the support of Justinien Ier, the monachism takes a great importance in the East. Moral refuge, its capacity of attraction is such as it diverts tax and public office part of the forces of the Empire, and becomes a true countervailing power which will appear at the time of the crisis of the Iconoclasme. In Occident, the rise of the monachism will have to await the support of Charlemagne. In all Roman in the past regions, the monasteries will play an invaluable part of conservatives of the ancient culture.

Mentalities and religious practices

It is during late Antiquity that is fixed the organization of the Christian Calendrier. Constantin chooses to celebrate the birth of Christ, Christmas, on December 25th, day of the celebration of the god Sol Invictus , the Unconquered Sun . One can see there there an attempt at Syncrétisme religious. Easter remains a movable feast following the example Pessah. Its date of celebration is different from one Christian community to another. During the fast of Lent which precedes it, the catechumens, of the adults, prepare with the Baptême celebrated if possible during the night of Easter. Constantin prohibits also a great number of activities Sunday, day devoted to the Christian worship. The Christian calendar with its Christian festivals, the time splicing in week definitively supplants the Roman calendar at the end of the 5th century. On the other hand, during all late Antiquity, the calculation of the years is done starting from an ancient criterion: the foundation of Rome (753 av. J. - C.), the first Games Olympic (776 av. J. - C.) or even the era of Dioclétien. At the 6th century, Denys Small the works out a Christian calculation as from the year of birth of Christ. This new comput enters in action only at the 8th century.

On the plan of mentalities, the Christianisme introduces a great change into the vision of the world divine. The Romans had always accepted without much resistance the nonRoman divinities. Christianity, religion monotheist, continues as being the only true faith which professes only true God. The other divinities and religions are brought back to the row of idols or errors. This position has like corollary the rise of Christian religious intolerance at the 4th century, which would be due to the apocalyptic speeches certain Christian communities and to their eschatologic waitings, like with the imperial political power. The Church multiplies the adjectives to be defined: katholicos , i.e. universal, orthodoxos , i.e. professing the only true faith. So the Christian Church is brought to fight not only the pagan ones, but also the Christians professing a contrary faith with the assertions of the councils, which are regarded as from the 5th century as heretics. The historians put the question of the moral changes induced by Christianity. The Christian morals of late Antiquity concentrates above all on sexuality and charity and does not call into question the family hierarchy in place, insistent on the contrary on the necessary respect of the authority of the Lord's Prayer familias . The religious speech is thus in general preserving. Gregoire de Nysse is the only Christian author to have condemned slavery, but not because of the sad fate of the slaves. It is in fact worried by the safety of the owners of slaves, culprits, according to him, of the sin of pride. Augustin denounces torture because of its inefficiency and its inhumanity.

Christologic arguments

The first centuries of Christianity are those during which are worked out the Christian doctrines. This development does not go without divisions and conflicts. In addition to the conflicts of primacy, the dogmatic quarrels are numerous. The African Donatisme, the Arianisme, the priscillianism, the Pélagianisme, the Nestorianisme, the Monophysisme are as many doctrines condemned like Hérésie S by the oecumenical first Concile S. Against the arianism, two Concile S are joined together. In 325 at the conclusion of the First council of Nicée, the Symbole of Nicée, that Latin calls creed is written. It is the first solemn expression of orthodoxy. It defines God as a single being, in three eternal people, the Father, the Son and the Saint Spirit. It is the assertion of the dogma of the Trinité, reiterated at the time of the council of Constantinople of 381. Jesus-Christ is defined like: “only sons of God, generated of the Father, light of light, true God of true God, generated, not created, of the same substance ( homoousios ) that the Father” the ariens think, them, that the Father is former to the Son and the Saint Spirit and that he is thus their creator. The arianism has many partisans in the East as in Occident. The missionaries ariens convert the Goths and the Vandales. This poses problems of religious cohabitation with the people romanized mainly nicéens. For this reason the Catholic church granted such a weight to the conversion and the baptism of Clovis, king of the Francs, at the end of the 5th century. It is the first barbarian king to embrace the catholic faith and to thus profit from the support of the Roman Church.

At the 5th century the theological arguments relate to the nature of the Christ, human and/or divine. The nestorianism defended by the Patriarch of Constantinople, Nestorius privileges the human nature of Christ. He is condemned by the council of Éphèse of 431 joined together to the instigation of the patriarch of Alexandria Cyrille. With Antioche, one insists on the fact that Jesus is certainly perfect God but also perfect man. One is reminded that its incarnation, which maintains the duality of natures, is the condition of the hello of the mankind and which it is because the Verbe of God (Christ) was made man, that one can say that Marie is mother of God. The monophysites, according to the ideas of the monk Eutychès, deny the human nature of Christ. Eutychès sermon that in the union as a Jesus-Christ, divine nature absorbs to some extent the human nature. The pope finds the first place in the religious debate. But the monophysism is very well established in Egypt, Syria and in part of Asia Mineure. It resists during two centuries while being folded up on the local languages, the Copte in Egypt and the Syriaque in Syria. Justinien also fails him to put an end to religious divisions the East in spite of the meeting of the council of the “three chapters”. The role of the heresies, is not to undervalue. The religious quarrels continue in the East until the 7th century. The monophysism of the Egyptians causes a national awakening. The Moslem conquest is accepted favorably so much the country hated the imperial influence, which superimposed a Byzantine patriarch and bishops with the hierarchy copte.

Paganism, superstition and syncretism in a Christian Empire

During all the 4th century, the worships traditional polytheists continue to be practiced, just as the worships with mystery of Eastern origin like those of Mithra, of Cybèle, Isis and Sérapis in spite of progressive restrictions. The Christian texts which denounce them violently, the dedications, the ex-votos, the certificates of work in the temples are as many testimonys. The pagan historian Zosime also teaches him to us that the new religion was not yet widespread in all the Roman Empire, the Paganisme being maintained long enough in the villages after his extinction in the cities.

Constantin hardly intervenes but to prohibit the rites which concern the superstitio , i.e. of the private religious rites, like the night sacrifices, private rites of haruspice and others practical identified with sorcery and the magic. He in general expresses the greatest tolerance with respect to all the forms of paganism. The emperor Julien, acquired with paganism, promulgates into 361 an edict of tolerance allowing to practice the worship of his choice. It requires that the Christians who had seized the treasures of the pagan worships restore them. Its successors all are Christian. In 379, Gratien gives up the load of Grand Pontiff. From 382, at the instigation of Ambroise, bishop of Milan, the furnace bridge of the Victoire, her symbol with the Senate, Curie is torn off, while the Vestale S and all priesthoods lose their immunities. February 24th, 391, a law of Théodose prohibited with any person to enter a temple, to adore the statues of the gods and to celebrate sacrifices, “under penalty of death”. In 392, Théodose prohibits the Olympic Games related to Zeus and Héra, but also because of the nudity of the body of the candidates, the worship of the body and nudity being disparaged by Christianity. Little by little, the abandoned temples fall in ruins. In 435, a decree renewing the prohibition of the sacrifices in the pagan temples adds: “if one of those still remains”. In Egypt, in Anatolia, the peasants cling to their old beliefs. Certain Christian communities show sometimes destroying fanaticism with respect to paganism. They are repudiated by the great minds of their time, like Augustin saint. The example more striking is that of the philosopher neoplatonician Hypatie, put in parts in a church, then burned by a crowd of fanatics carried out by the patriarch Cyrille, into 415, with Alexandria. Temples are destroyed like the Sérapéum of Alexandria as of 391, the temple of Caelestis, the large Carthaginian goddess heiress of Tanit into 399. However the State not made systematic work of destruction of the pagan temples and their objects of Article On the contrary, official decrees testify to the will of the State to preserve this artistic inheritance and to teach, which has like consequence the closing of the philosophical school of Athens. An edict of 529 still worsens their situation in their imposing conversion with Christianity.

In addition, Christianity itself is impregnated old pagan rites. Certain Roman traditional festivals are always celebrated at the end of the 5th century, as the festival of Lupercales devoted to fruitfulness and in love one. For the éradiquer, the pope Gélase I {{er}} decides into 495 to celebrate the festival of Saint Valentin, on February 14th, one day before the festival of the Lupercales to celebrate in love ones. It is thus well about an attempt at christianization of a pagan rite. The Africans continue to celebrate banquets at the birthdays days of dead directly on the tombs. At the 6th century, Césaire of Arles denounces in its sermons with its faithful pagan practices which remain in the people. The wearing of amulets, the worships with the trees and the sources did not disappear from Gaulle Southerner. The complaints of the clerks are numerous until the end of late Antiquity. In the East, awaited Concile in Trullo (Constantinople, 691-692) fade of the habits which remain: celebrations of old pagan festivals, songs in the honor of Dionysos during the grape harvest, bûchers lit with the new moon, etc

For the christianized populations, the inefficiency of ancient medicine supported the beliefs in the miracles produced by the Saint S. the pilgrimages multiply in all the Roman Empire. At the 6th century, the tomb of Martin de Tours drains considerable crowd. The worship of the saints gives rise to the pilgrimages carrying prosperity for the towns of reception.

Evolution of the economy

Evolutions of the company and the cities.

Dominant classes

As from the 4th century the differences in the right between Honestiores and Humiliores increase. The dominant classes widen and are structured. To the 4th century the prefectures of the city and court are added to the consulate like loads making it possible to enter the Nobilitas. In the first part of the 4th century, the Nobilitas knows an abrupt widening. Constantin makes the decision to remove the equestrian Ordre whose members all enter almost the senatorial Ordre. The number of senators passes from 600 to 2000 members. The Senate created with Constantinople account him also 2000 members. The Eastern senatorial order is recruited among notable Greek provincial cities. He knows a rapid growth under the reign of Constance II. The higher layer of the Senate adopts then the name of clarissime to be distinguished from the mass of the nobility. The clarissimes are above all the land great landowners. They often show a refined culture and take part in the literary rebirth of the time. For a long time historians and archeologists believed, within sight of the existence of large villas of Masters richly decorated in the campaigns, that the Nobilitas had carried out on the 4th century a return to the ground. Recent research reveals that the majority of the clarissimes live most of the year downtown and go only to the occasion in their fields. Towards 370, in the legal vocabulary, the Nobilitas merges with the senatorial statute. The importance of the bureaucracy is such as at the 4th century, the administrative career replaced the social army like means of promotion. However, in the middle of the 4th century, the Roman big families convert little by little with Christianity.

The cruel invasions do not prevent the senatorial aristocracy from keeping its land richness and its influence until the 8th century. It monopolizes the loads of count and bishop. As a Gaulle and Spain, it mixes slowly with the Germanic aristocracy with giving rise to little by little the medieval nobility.

The degradation of the statute of the citizens of the Empire

The Ordre décurional knows significant changes. The role and the statute of the curiales seem to be degraded. The crumbling of the incomes of the order does not allow any more décurions to face their obligations. The cities thus suffer from the decline of the evergetism deprived and that their own resources. The Décurion S become responsible on their own goods for the heavy taxes which the emperor requires and which they must collect. This obligation makes them particularly unpopular. The creation of a perceiving body of by Valentinien I {{er}} is not enough to relieve them of this difficult task. So the citizens flee the municipal magistratures. To recruit new Décurion S, Constantin changes the local established among. The residents of a city who have the means of them must become Décurion S. Moreover the load décurionale becomes hereditary. This does not prevent the financial position of the cities from continuing to degrade itself. Many the Décurion S seek to flee their heavy hereditary loads, either while becoming monk or priest, or while being made recruit in the administrations provincial, diocésaines or prefectoral, or while being withdrawn in the rural fields. The threats of confiscation of their goods do not change large thing there.

The corporations know the same evolution. Under Constantin 1st, the State intervenes directly to impose the constraint and heredity. The naviculaires have the obligation to transport the military annone under penalty of serious penal sanction. Once their service for the ensured State, they have the right to be delivered to the transport of the goods for their own account. The obligation for a son to take again the trade of his/her father is also founded for the imperial workshops. Condemned and the vagrants are also recruited of force. This statute of forced employment brings closer the workmen to these workshops of the condition of slaves whereas they are in theory of the citizens.

The small property continues to regress at the 4th century. Indeed the small holders have more and more evil to meet the tax requirements of the Empire. The statute of colonist becomes current in the rural world. There too, the colonists do not have any more the right to leave their ground and the wire are obliged to take again the paternal exploitation. As for the corporations, this social opposition to progress is related to the concern of having sure tax re-entries. Little by little, the peasant becomes attached to his ground. Under Théodose, when the Master sells the ground, it sells the colonist with. The condition of the farmers is near already to the medieval Servage. But there still, there exist notable differences between the oriental party and the Western part of the Empire. The East more populated undergoes less the colonat. A farming community the small ones and average owners is maintained a little everywhere and seems even majority in Syria. After 500, the fastener of Eastern colonists to their ground is less rigorous. Their condition approaches that of the small holder. A new category develops, that of the “hereditary lessees”, ground dealers in exchange of a moderate rent and sometimes even without rent. The consequence is the increase in the number of small holders in the East during all the 6th century.

Christianity does not make disappear the Esclavage. At the 4th century, Constantin seeks to soften their condition. The Church supports stampings and militates for a treatment worthy of the slaves but slavery as an institution is not called into question. Césaire of Arles did nothing but limit the punishment of a slave to 39 blows per day. It is interesting to note that at the beginning of the 5th century, Melanie, a Roman rich person, decides to free all the slaves from its fields. Several thousands of them refuse this generosity. Indeed the condition of small farmers at that time worsened so much that a slave treated with humanity does not have anything to envy to him. There is not almost more difference between a colonist, in free theory juridically, and a slave with.

The poor vis-a-vis the exactions of the State

To make return the taxes essential to the maintenance of the army and the bureaucracy, the agents of tax department and the secret police are shown particularly hard towards humblest. Those thus claim the protection of the powerful buildings, the owners . Whereas under the Early empire the owner had as a role to allow harmonious relationship between the State and citizens, from the IV E, it makes play its influence and its social status to withdraw its customers from the requirements of the law. So it diverts with its profit a share of the authority of the State. One can see there too, in genesis, to constitute the feudal relationship between the lords and the peasants. The emperors, who in practice see patronage an attack with the authority of the State and a loss of revenue, try to be opposed to this practice, in vain. A constitution of 415 place the colonists under the tax responsibility of the Master, signs of a slip of being able.

The revolt is another answer vis-a-vis the requirements of the Empire. The collection of the taxes by let us décurions leads sometimes to local risings in Syria. The revolt of the Bagaudes as a Gaulle, that of the Circoncellion S in Africa are as many examples of the dispute of the imperial requirements.

Barbarians in the Roman world

Since the III E, the Roman Empire nourishes cruel contributions. The fundamental role of the federate people in the Roman army was already evoked. They also populated the septentrional areas of the Empire threatened of depopulation. The decrees of Valentinien Ier prohibiting the marriages romano-barbarians show that there at that time existed already a considerable interbreeding. The cruel living in the Empire and romanized cases of officers are frequent in IVe century.

Stilicon is an excellent example of assimilation at the Roman company. It is Vandale by his father, undoubtedly commander of squadron of cavalry under Valens and Roman by his mother, provincial of Pannonia. It climbs all the levels of the army. Towards 384, it marries Serena, girl of Honorius, brother of Théodose Ier, and adopted by this last at the time of died of his/her father, proof that it belongs to the imperial palace. After the victory of Théodose at the time of the Battle of the Cold River in 394, Stilicon takes the title of magister peditum . With died of Théodose, he becomes the tutor of two wire of late but he is initially that of Honorius which is only 11 years old into 395. It is the policy of coexistence with the barbarians and will to keep plain the two parts of the Empire which seems to have guided the decision of the emperor. A barbarian can thus reach the high positions except covering imperial purple. Gondebaud and Ricimer reflects also this will of the Patrice S of origin barbarian to serve the Roman Empire without imperial ambition.

The cruel invasions of the 5th century do not make disappear from a blow, the Roman structures of the Occident. The Barbarians account for indeed only 5% of the population of the Occident. The prohibition of the mixed marriages shows the fear of losing their identity. In fact, put aside at the Vandals, the Anglo-Saxons and later the Lombards, the land ownership changes only little with hands. Conversion with the Catholicism of the barbarians allows fusion with the Romans. This fusion was done mainly in favor of the romanity. The first cruel monarchies are very respectful Roman institutions which they admire. With Ravenne, with Tolède, the Gothic courses speak Latin. The romanity thus survives the Roman Empire.

Cities

The city remains the heart of the romanity. The traditional places of the Roman life, the thermal baths, the circuses and the Amphithéâtres are attended until the end of the 6th century and even beyond for Constantinople. But good number of old monuments are degraded because public finances are insufficient to provide for their maintenance, more especially as the period of late Antiquity is rich in earthquakes. Fifteen imperial constitutions from 321 to 395 are devoted in all or partly to the problem of the restoration of the old buildings. The cities of the Empire know transformations. They build ramparts with to be protected. The great architectural innovation is the construction of Christian buildings, a basilica, a Baptistère and the residence of the bishop, of which part of material used comes from old abandoned monuments. New imperial residences: Trier, Milan, Sirmium, Nicomédie profits from the presence of the troops and the emperors. Five big cities dominate by the number of their inhabitants late Antiquity. It is about Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioche and Carthage. These three last have a population estimated between: 100000 and: 150000 inhabitants. In Rome, the enclosure built by Aurélien is modified by Maxence then Honorius to improve the effectiveness of it. The Aqueduct S, the bridges and the roads are maintained. The Amphitheater flavien, victim of the lightning in 320 and three earthquakes, is regularly repaired. The emperors of Occident do not have however finances necessary to maintain all the monuments the old imperial capital. Many work is insufficient to prevent the old monuments from degrading itself. Majorien (457-461) prohibited with the urban civils servant to authorize the taking away of the stones on the public edifices, which proves that the practice tended to develop. But nothing made there. After the end of the Roman Empire of Occident, the old monuments are used as careers to the inhabitants. The role growing of Christianity involves the construction of basilicas like that of the Lateran, of Saint-Pierre or Saint-Paul-out-the-walls, of catacomb S, Baptistère S and episcopal palates which are enriched by the installation by marbles, mosaics and enamels. Until 410, Rome counts approximately: 800000 inhabitants. The population turns around 300 to: 400000 inhabitants during all the 5th century. This high level of population can be maintained thanks to the good performance of the annone. 40% of the food of the inhabitants of Rome east ensured by the State. The loss of the Africa in 439 involves the end of the payment of the annone in Rome. The population decrease then slowly. At the 6th century, the Gothic war between Justinien and the Ostrogoths make it fall to: 80000 inhabitants. Constantinople, inaugurated by Constantin into 330 is built on a defensive natural site which makes it practically impregnable whereas Rome is unceasingly under the threat of the German ones. It is also close to the borders of the the Danube and the Euphrate where military operations to contain the Goths and Persians are most important. It is finally located in the middle of the grounds of old Hellenic civilization. Constantin builds it on the model of Rome with seven urban hills, fourteen areas, a Capitole, a forum, a Senate. In the first times, it allows the establishment of pagan temples but very quickly the city becomes almost exclusively Christian and comprises only Christian religious buildings. In a few decades, the city becomes one of the largest metropolises of the Roman East thanks to its political role and to its economic activities and the tax exemptions granted to its inhabitants. As of Constantin, the city counts: 100000 inhabitants. It reaches: 200000 inhabitants at the end of the 4th century. Constantinople, located out of the zones of conflict, sees its population increasing. The number of its inhabitants is discussed: : 800000 inhabitants during the 5th century for Bertrand Lançon, 4 with: 500000 for A. Ducellier, Mr. Kaplan and B. Martin. The embellishment of the city is the principal building site of the emperors starting from Constantin. This one made built there, the imperial palace, the hippodrome, the new name given to the Roman circuses, the church of Crowned Wisdom (Holy-Sophie). The city increases then towards the West. The enclosure of origin enclosing 700 hectares sufficient more, Théodose II surrounds it by new ramparts between 412 and 414, which increase the surface of the city to 1450 hectares. The Concile of Chalcédoine of 451, in its twenty-eighth gun, gives to the town of Constantinople the title of “Rome News”, which makes of its bishop, the Patriarche of Constantinople, the second character of the Church. This still contributes to give to the city its character independent of capital of the Byzantine Empire.

Intellectual and artistic life

Education

The world of the letters

End of bilingualism gréco-Roman

During late Antiquity, the graeco-latin bilingualism of Early empire is beaten in breach. However during the 4th century, Latin made a spectacular opening in the East because of growing place of the right and the administrative techniques. The Greek as for him is spoken by the classes cultivated about the Occident. But starting from the end of the 4th century, the knowledge of the Greek moves back considerably in the west. At the beginning of the 5th century, Augustin, regarded as the largest intellectual of the Occident of his time, does not have the use of it. To contribute with the comprehension of the Greek texts and their translation, of many graeco-latin glossaries are copied. In this context, Jerome, the translator of the Bible of the Greek to the Latin at the 5th century, appears an exception. The debates christologic which cross late Antiquity are made even more complex by the end of bilingualism. The clerks nicéens must find the good translation so that Latin includes/understands the direction of the word homoousios , a literally meaning neologism for the time and in word, of the same homo “natural” ousios . The translators find the equivalent Latin, consubstantialis . The problems of language do nothing but accentuate the religious quarrels. Thus at the time of the council of Éphèse of 431, a misunderstanding based on the difference between the terms of “anybody” and “nature” in Latin and Greek turns to the violent confrontation.

In the East, Latin is maintained like administrative language until the time justinienne. The code Justinien of 534 is written besides in this language, symbol of the romanity. But from 535 and the publication of the novelles first , the new laws, wanted by Justinien, the official language becomes the Greek. The laws are not any more in Latin but in the areas latinophones, the Dacie, the Mésie, the Scythie and for the administration and military executives of Africa. The division of the thus induced Empire a linguistic division. Consequently, the translations multiply. They are the fact large bilingual scholars: Jerome which translates the Bible into Latin at the end of the 4th century; the writings of the Greek doctors Hippocrates, Dioscoride, Galien, Oribase are compiled and represented with. Late Antiquity thus sees the copies and the translations to abound to face at the request of the public libraries, the évêché S and the Monastère S.

Inside this linguistic division a diversity of vernacular languages takes shape more important than it does not appear to with it. In the East, the Greek touches mainly the coastal towns thanks to the administration, the trade and the Christian religion. Elsewhere, the Greek, language of the tax collectors, orthodoxy chalcédonienne vis-a-vis the agricultural work force acquired with the Nestorianisme or the Monophysisme, is ignored. As of second half of the 4th century the instruments must be translated into Copte in Egypt. A literature copte develops: accounts hagiographic on the most venerated saints country, texts monastic like community rules… The texts of the Fathers of the Church, written in Greek in the beginning are them also translated into Copte.

Ancient culture and Christian culture

The Greek philosophy is always very important during late Antiquity. Aristote and Plato always exerts a great influence among the intellectual elites. Plotin (205-270) and Porphyre is the most famous representatives of the Néoplatonisme. For Plotin, the universe is explained by “the chain Être”. At the top, it there with the a , the Good , from where various degrees of lower beings emanate, to the matter. The man can enter in union with one moments of extase. The well-read men can receive the teaching of the Académie of Athens until 529, date of its closing by Justinien. Gregoire de Naziance there côtoie the future emperor Julien. Alexandria remains a large cultural metropolis. Large intellectuals like Ammonius, Hypatie, a woman who directs the school Neo-Platonist of Alexandria ensure the radiation of the Egyptian city. At the beginning of the VI E, Boèce, Christian and hellenist of education, is named consul by Ostrogoth Théodoric into 510 and 522. It tries to create a center of intellectual culture at the court of the barbarian king. The Middle Ages, until the 13th century, know Aristote only by its Latin translations. Christianity is influenced by the cultural and religious movements of its time, like the gnosis or the Manichéisme. Augustin interprets Christianity in the light of the neoplatonism. He does not see any contradiction between the Christianisme and the philosophy of Plato. He reconciles the Platonic concept of the “eternal ideas” with Christianity by regarding those as integral part of God eternal.

Books and literature

The Codex, appeared with in the Roman Empire, spreads and replaces the volumen , the roller with difficult employment. The book became an object handy, easy to transport, arrange, readable by only one individual. But there remains a expensive object, even if the number of volumes in circulation increases considerably. The use of the parchment, more solid but more expensive extends at the expense of the papyrus. The passage of volumen to the Codex, sometimes of very reduced size, has as consequence the loss of part of the ancient texts which are not consulted any more. The place of the writing in the company becomes increasingly important. In the field of the right, the great codes like, that of Théodose and Justinien, compilations of the jurisconsults with still reinforce the legitimacy of the laws. Christianity continues as a Religion of the book , contrary to the traditional religions. It will become the religion of the “book of pocket”. The quiet reading causes a form of interiorization of the thought and, so creates a new spirituality.

The literature of the time is primarily Christian, at least among the texts which are known to us or arrived. The correspondence of some great minds of time, preserved very well, makes it possible to have a fine knowledge of mentalities of late Antiquity. In Greek language, Libanios left 1544 letters and Jean Chrysostome, 236. In Latin, there remain 900 letters of Symmaque, 225 of Augustin, 146 of Sidoine Apollinaire, 850 of the pope Gregoire Large the. The Greek Rhétorique is used by the Pères of the Church, that is to write sermons, to explain the holy texts or to try to convince the not-Christians. The Hagiographie multiplies. While telling the life of the Holy to the manner of Suétone or Plutarque, it concentrates on the Christian virtues of saints to make examples for the reader of them. With, the kind hagiographic multiplies the accounts of miracles, which override the moral example. It is thus not astonishing that the major work of late Antiquity is a religious work. It is about the the City of God of Augustin d' Hippone, completed into 423. The author retorts in a masterly way to the detractors of Christianity who made the religion responsible for the Sac of Rome of 410. In its theory of the two cities, it develops the idea that Rome is a terrestrial city thus mortal. The city of the Christians is the kingdom of God who awaits them after death. They should not thus bind their Christian faith to the existence of Rome even if they must serve the Empire honestly. the city of God will play a crucial role in Occident of the Middle Ages at the 17th century.