Kuzari

Kuzari is the major philosophical work of legendary the Rabbin, Poète and philosopher Juda Halevi (1085 - 1138).
Initialement written in Arabic, under the title of Kitab alhuyya wa-l-dalil fi nusr Aldine Al-dalil , (the book of the argumentation for the defense of the scorned religion. Indeed, the book opens on the remarks of its author: " Questioned on the arguments of which I laid out vis-a-vis the philosophical , Moslem, Christian and hétérodoxes,… "), it was for much in the fame of its author. Occurring with one time when the Spanish Judaism threatened to be melted in the prestigious schools of thought which surrounded it, Juda Halevi wanted to restore the particularism of the Judaism, and the triumph of the Revelation on the Reason. The work will be translated later into French of its Arab original text by the Chief rabbi Charles Touati. After long years of research, this translation is born into 1994 with the editions Verdier

The book is divided into five tests (" ma' amarim"), and takes the shape of a dialog between the king (pagan) of the Khazars, and a Jew which the king asked to learn the bases from his religion. There one finds the influence of the large Persan thinker Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali, which in its Tahafut Al-Falasifa (inconsistency of the Philosophers) works towards a rather similar end besides.

Although this book is obviously not regarded as a historically reliable relation of the conversion of Khazars, certain scholars, as D.M. Dunlop think perhaps that Juda Halevi had access to Khazars documents which it took as a starting point freely. It is in any case certain that it was informed of the Correspondance khazare between Joseph, king of Khazars, and Hasdaï ibn Shaprut, exilarque Spanish.
In addition, Abraham ibn Dawd Halevi, contemporary of Juda Halevi, pays to have seen of Khazars making rabbinical studies in the academies tolédanes of XIIe century.

Its work was abundantly studied and translated by many scholars into many languages. Samuel ibn Tibbon translated it into Hebrew under its current title ( Kuzari , the " Khazar").

Context

Juda Halevi takes as a starting point the correspondence which was held between the years 950 and 960, between Hasdaï ibn Shaprut, secretary of the Caliph de Cordoue, and Joseph, King of Khazars. This one tells with its correspondent how its ancestor, Bulan Bek, chooses the Judaism. Of this one, there is, following the example life of D' Artagnan, three accounts: that of reality; that of the correspondence, already legendary; and that of Juda Halevi, which one retained (as one retained of the three D' Artagnan that of Dumas)

reality

Communities Juives had always existed in the Greek colonies circumscribing the Black Sea, and this since High Antiquity. Certain towns of the Crimea were already mainly populated Jews in 670 EC. These communities were joined by waves of immigration taking refuge persecutions sassanides, and later Islamic armies. The Jews played a particularly central part in the local economy, and of the Juifs merchants, like the Radhanites, the grounds khazares furrowed, and probably had on them a great influence as regards policy. Moreover, Jews were established in the montagenes near the territories of Khazarie, were combined or perhaps subjects of those. Such an amount of Radhanites which these Jews of the mountains had to play a decisive role in the conversion of Khazars.

This one took place at the end of VIIIe century or the beginning of 9th, and related to initially only the elite. However, of the archaeological excavations variations in manners of burial showed, resembling the Jewish habits more and more, extending to all the territory. In 830, the currency was struck Jewish symbols.

According to some, the rabbi who carried out conversion would be Isaac Sangari, but the historicity of the character was not definitively established.
Actually, there was of Khazars Christians, Moslems, and even of those which did not disavow their paganism. In addition, some say that the leading elite itself was polygamous, maintaining several concubines under the guard the eunuques ones. This civilization seemed dedicated to the decline and disappearance, and was it.

the version of the king of Khazars

Four centuries before, i.e. with the 7th century, " as books of histoire" attest it; , Bulan, king of the Khazars, Asian people of origin, wonder about the cogency of its religion, centered on a crossbred phallic worship of shamanism, pretexts with many vices in order to honor their divinities. Deciding to return to the monotheism, perhaps for geopolitical reasons, it would have received the visit of an angel, signs that it was ready for conversion. He convenes the doctors of the three religions monotheists, Islam, Christianity, and the Judaism, known then under the name of talmudism.

As none convinces it, he asks separately each one which religions he should choose, out his. The Christian prefers the Judaism with Islam. The Moslem prefers the Judaism with Christianity. As for the Jew, he refuses conversion. He makes repeat with the three scientists their choices in public, and in front of their reiteration, chooses to convert with the Judaism with its people after, which requires the transport of many rabbis from Babylon.

The version of Juda Halevi

Presenting its book as an illustration of the arguments of which it lays out against Christian, Moslem, philosophical and hétérodoxes, Juda Halevi precise from the start which it is about a insipirée fiction of historical facts:

Kuzari, king of Khazars, recently receive the visit of an angel repeating to him invariably that its intentions are pleasant with God, but that its works are not it. This message returns even more when Kuzari ensures itself the religious service
In order to know what is pleasant with God, it convenes three doctors of the large currents of thought, philosophy, Christianity and Islam, in this order.
As for the Judaism, it pushes back it (initially), estimating that the forfeiture in which these gueux live can be only one proof that their religion approved not with God.

First chapter

He tells the conversion itself of the king of Khazars, after an initial reserve with regard to this " mass degraded and déchue" that is the Judaism. This is why it decides to call upon the representatives of the three large currents (philosophy, Christianity, Islam).
Au first, it reproaches for not including/understanding the emotion, and all that is not field of rational in general.
Au second, it reproaches for being based unconditionally on things " irrationnelles" (the creation of the world, Braces, the Red Sea, etc).
Au third to base itself on a book that him, Kuzari, does not include/understand, not being Arabic-speaking person.
Finalement, noting that the Christian, like the Moslem (which is made the war without respite), use Israel in their persuasive argumentation, he sees himself constrained to call upon Wise vilified minority (Judaism).

The speech of the philosopher

Can one be pleasant with God, the Main cause, whereas God does not worry about the men, but of the prototypes? If one wishes to progress and reach with the divine one, it is necessary to improve its heart and its spirit until reaching the level of Intellect Agent (the low level of the separated spirits, where any decision taken is good, and where, according to the expression, " great minds rencontrent")
Cependant, this God, who is not worried private individuals, is in obvious contradiction with the dreams of Kuzari. Moreover, those which try to approve it, Christian and Musulman S, were entredéchirent with this intention. That they can think of having both reason is absurd, it is thus that the things are more complicated.

The profession of faith of the Christian doctor

He speaks about creative God of the world, which carried out miracles for Israel, of a man " outside prophet sent but internally god envoyeur" , rejected by the majority of the people of Israel. It is because they, the Christians, accepted it, that they became the verus Israel .
Cependant, Kuzari is astonished that one can accept as many proposals defying the reason without proof. He thus hears the Moslem doctor.

The Moslem doctor

The doctor of the Islam speaks to him, in addition to wonders carried out by God, but of this book extraordinary, incréé, proof of his drafting by Creative God, and veracity of all that is consigned there.
Le Kuzari points out that the Coran is perhaps extraordinary, but inaccessible to the not-Arabic-speaking people, and that, in addition, the miracles carried out by Mahomet, which are certainly not used to convince, were not seen of everyone either. However, which are the miracles on which everyone agrees? Miracles carried out for Israel, still and always.

'To cut (comrade) - the rabbi, in the French editions

Kuzari is thus seen forced to refer about it to a doctor of the Judaism which starts, in a surprising way, because he does not speak about creative God, of which he does not give any proof of the existence, but about God saver of His people in Egypt, from which he explains the miracles carried out on the Red Sea. Roughly speaking, " Would you feel you obliged to believe that the king of India is the best king on ground if it were affirmed to you? However, if it forwarded you of the ambassadors, the foods among most refined, spices among more envoûantes, of drinks among more suaves, drugs among most effective and the poisons among more the mortals against the enemies, would you believe in his existence, his power and his benefits so much praised? "

Indeed, the existence of God, the belief in the creation of the world, etc, being taught, they do not require a demonstration, and address themselves only to those which believe in it. On the other hand, the Jews report a proof based on the significant experiment, because 600.000 people, whose quality among were raised, saw them.

In addition, contrary to the rational religion (or " naturelle"), which tends to create animated men of the best intentions, the revealed religion, it, tends to make them carry out good acts.

This goal cannot be reached by the philosophy, which did not even rule on the concept of " bien" , but it can the being by the religion, which teaches what is well.
In addition, just as the Science is a sum of all the Vérité S discovered by the successive generations, in the same way the religion is based on a whole of traditions. In other words, the Histoire is a big factor in the development of the human culture, like science. However God, as opposed to what think the philosophers, made irruption in the history .

" Creatio ex nihilo "

By the mouth of the rabbi, Juda Halevi says that, owing to the fact that the Jews are the only agents of a history written of the development of humanity since the beginning of the world, the superiority of their traditions cannot be denied.

One will notice in the passing that it is it neither by the Christians, nor by the Moslems. The first show Israel to have " missed the coche" by not recognizing Jesus, seconds to have " falsifié" history with the profit of Isaac and the detriment of Ismaël .

There cannot be comparison between Jewish Culture, based according to him on a religious truth, and Greek Culture, based on science only. This science is very imperfect besides, since the philosophical Greeks did not receive lassistance divine, from which the prophets profited. Thus, if Aristote had known a tradition worthy of faith according to which the world was created ex nihilo, it is not doubtful that it would have supported it arguments at least as convincing as those developed by him in order to prove the eternity of the matter. Nevertheless, to believe in an eternal matter is not completely contrary with the Juive belief, as long as one admits that there was a beginning, as well as known as the biblical account of Creation

Nevertheless, the Jews believe in the creatio ex nihilo , which theory can be constant by arguments of force equal to those advanced in favor of the eternity of the world. The objection neoplatonician that Absolutely Infinite and Perfect one could not have created finished and imperfect beings is not isolated by allotting the existence of all the occurrences to the action of the Nature, because this one is only one link whose chain goes back to the Main cause, i.e. God.

Juda Halevi then tries to show the superiority of its religion, the Judaism, or, as one called it at the time, Talmudisme.
The safeguarding off the Jews in Egypt and in the wilderness, the delivery to them off the Law one Mount the Sinai, and to their later history obvious are to him so many proofs off to their superiority. He impresses upon the king the fact that the favor off God edge Be won only by accomplishing the precepts in all to their minutiæ, and that those precepts are binding only one the adherent off Judaism. The question why the Jews only were thus favored with God' S instruction is ace little worthy off consideration ace would Be the question why the animals had not been created men. The Jew then shows that the immortality off the Drunk, Resurrection, reward, and punishment are all implied in Scripture and are referred to in Jewish writings.

Question off attributes

In the second essay Judah enters into detailed discussion off nap has off the theological questions hinted In the preceding one. To thesis belongs in the first divine place that off the attributes. Judah rejects entirely the doctrines off essential attributes which had been propounded by Saadia Gaon and Bahya ibn Paquda. For him there is No difference between essential and other attributes. Either the attribute affirms has quality in God, in which box essential attributes edge not Be applied to Him more than edge any other, because it is impossible to predicate anything off Him, gold the attribute expresses only the negation off the contrary quality, and in that box there is No harm in using any kind off attributes. 'Accordingly Judah divides all the attributes found in the Bible into three classes: activate, relative, and negative, which last class included/understood all the essential attributes expressing mother negations. See also: Divine simplicity; Negative theology

The question off attributes being closely connected with that off anthropomorphism, Judah enters into has lengthy discussion one this not. Although opposed to the design off the corporeality off God, ace being contrary to Scripture, He would consider it wrong to reject all the sensuous concepts off anthropomorphism, drunk ace there is something in thesis ideas which wire the human with the awe off God.

The remainder off the essay included/understood essays one the following subjects: the excellence off Palestine, the Land off Prophecy, which is to other countries what the Jews are to other nations; the sacrifices; the arrangement off the Gate vault, which, according to Judah, symbolizes the human body; the prominent negro spiritual position occupied by Israel, whose relation to other nations is that off the heart to the limbs; the opposition evinced by Judaism toward Asceticism, in virtue off the principle that the favor off God is to Be won only by carrying out His precepts, and that thesis precepts C not drunk command man to subdue the inclinations suggested by the faculties off the, goal to uses them in their due place and proportion; the excellence off the Hebrew language, which, although sharing now the fate off the Jews, is to other languages what the Jews are to other nations and what Palestine is to other Lands.

The third essay is devoted to the refutation off the teachings off oral Karaism and to the history off the development off the tradition, the Talmud. Judah ha-Levi shows that there is oral No means off carrying out the precepts without having recourse to tradition; and that such tradition has always existed may Be inferred from many passages off the Bible, the very reading off which is depends upon it, since there were No Vowel S and accents in the original text.

Names off God

The fourth essay opens with year analysis off the various names off God found in the Bible. According to Judah, all thesis names, with the exception off the Tetragrammaton, are attributes expressing the various states off God' S activity in the world. The multiplicity off names No more implies has multiplicity in His gasoline than C the multifarious influences off the rays off the sun one various bodies imply has multiplicity off suns. To the intuitive vision off the prophet the actions proceeding from God appear under the images off the corresponding human actions. Angel S are God' S messengers; and either they exist for has length off time, but they special are created only for purposes.

From the names off God and the favorite gasoline off angels Judah master keys to his topic and shows that the views off the Prophets are has purer for source has off knowledge God than the teachings off the philosophers. Although He profess great reverence for the " Sefer Yeẓrah, " from which He quotes many passages, He hastens to add that the theories off Abraham elucidated therein had been held by the patriarch before God revealed Himself to him. Medical The essay concludes with examples off the astronomical and knowledge off the ancient Hebrews.

Arguments against philosophy

The fifth and last essay is devoted to has criticism off the various philosophical systems known At the time off the author. Judah attacks by turns the Aristotelian Cosmology, Psychology, and Metaphysics. To the doctrines off emanation, based, according to him, upon the simple Aristotelian cosmological principle that No being edge produce has compound being, He objects in the form off the following query: " Why did the emanation stop At the lunar sphere? Why should each give intelligence think only off itself and off that from which it issued and thus birth to one emanation, thinking not At all off the preceding intellgences, and thereby losing the power to give birth to many emanations? "

He wire-drawers against the theory off drunk Aristotle that the drunk off man is his thought and that only the off to philosophize will Be united, after the death off the body, with the activates intellect. " Is there, " He asks, " any curriculum vitae off the knowledge one has to acquire to win immortality? Drunk How is it that the off one man differs from that off another? Does How edge one forget have thing ounce thought off? " and many other questions off the kind. Severe He shows himself especially against the Motekallamin, whose arguments one the creation off the world, one God and His unity, He terms dialectic exercises and mother sentences.

However, Judah ha-Levi is against philosophical speculation only in matters concerning Creation, God, etc; and He follows the Greek philosophers in treating off the creation off the material world. Thus He admits that every being is made up off matter and form. The movement off the spheres formed the sphere off the elements, from the fusion off which all beings were created. This fusion, which varied according to climate, gave to matter the potentiality to receive from God has off variety forms, from the mineral, which is the lowest in the scale off creation, to man, who is the highest because off his possessing, in addition to the qualities off the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal, has hylic intellect which is influenced by the activates intellect. This hylic intellect, which forms the rational drunk, has negro spiritual substance and not year accident, and is therefore imperishable.

Drunk The discussion concerning and its faculties leads naturally to the question off free will. Judah upholds the doctrines off free will against the Epicurean S and the Fatalist S, and endeavors to reconcile it with the belief in God' S providence and omniscience.

Influence the Kuzari off

Although the Kuzari failed to stem the philosophical flood which, At the time off the appearance off the work, was inundating Judaism, it exercised has great influence upon the theologians. It was much studied; and Old traces off it are to Be found in all the theological and Kabbalistic writings off the Middle, not excluding even the Zohar, which borrowed from it several passages, amongthem the saying, " Israel is among the nations ace the heart among the limbs" (Zohar, III. 221b.)

Besides the Hebrew translation off Judah Ibn Tibbon, which passed through eleven editions (1st ED. Fano, 1506), another rendering into Hebrew was made by Judah Ben Isaac Cardinal, At the beginning off the thirteenth century. The study off the Kuzari seems to cuts become very popular in the fifteenth century. No less than six commentaries one it appeared in the first half off that century. Many translations and commentaries one this work, both religious and critical, cuts been written since then. It has had has resurgence off popularity in the Orthodox Jewish community in the modern will era.

The " Kuzari Principle"

The Kuzari has given its name to has " principle" off reasoning which is derived from the book. This principle claims to logically prove the historicity off major vents recorded in the natural Bible from the off the belief in them. More specifically, it is argued that one edge prove that nap three million Jews personally were led out off Egypt in year Exodus, and witnessed God' S revelation to them At Mount the Sinai, thus establishing the proof off the vents discussed in the Torah, the five books off Moses.

With modern statement off the Kuzari Principle is ace follows: Let E Be has possible vent which, had it really occurred, would cuts left behind enormous, easily available obviousness off its occurrence. Yew the obviousness does not exist, people will not believe that E occurred. (Rabbi Dr. Dovid Gottlieb, Living room up to the Truth , Chapter 6.)

Gottlieb then goes one to wire-drawer that vents such ace the revelation At the Sinai off made the requirements the Kuzari Principle and so their truth edge Be deduced merely from the fact that the Jewish people believed they were true. He also wire-drawers that other farmhouse beliefs, such ace those off other religions, C not made the requirements.

The BASIC logic off the Kuzari argument is that has story such ace that off the Sinai revelation must cuts originated with has real vent gold cuts been introduced At summons later moment. In to lath box, the population will cuts been whitebait to infer its falsehood merely from to their lack off prior knowledge off the claim. Therefore, according to this logic, the story edge only cuts been introduced At has time when the population knew it to Be true from to their own observation.

Many circles cuts disorder accepting the Kuzari principle ace logically gold historically valid. Amongst the arguments against the principle are:

This argument assume that how the Torah is understood has always been the same. Thus, yew people today believe that it is literally true butt history, then it must always cuts been understand this way. However, many books originally written ace has partial fiction, gold ace has story loosely based one real vents, were originally understood ace being imperfect, but even ace fictional. Over time has community may gradually as to see this text in has different light. From generation to generation there often has slight drift transistor in how the story is understood. Over several thousand years the understanding edge changes drastically.

This argument assume that when has text is first written, its specifies text became widely known among nearly the entire community, and that most people would know yew the text changed. However, this is often not the box. The assumption is that yew they are given has new story, they will know that it is new. However, in many times and places people had little accurate knowledge off to their history.

The argument assume that widespread farming acceptance off year vent ace miraculous ace proof off the miracle in that to form is impossible to fake. The argument be unaware of the fact that using this line off reasoning, to assert off would Be forced by symmetry to accept the public miracle claims other conflicting religions. Thus by asymmetrical rejection off public miracle claims off other religions, the argument fails.

This argument assume that the text has always existed in one set form. However, research has shown that early versions off the Bible and other ancient near-eastern literature differed in has number off ways. Texts often existed in multiple forms for many centuries, and later forms were the result off year evolutionary editing process. Most Orthodox Jewish writers argument the validity off this counter-argument, insisting that the Torah 'S transmission original process ensures that it is little changed from its form.

Bibliography

Dunlop, D.M. History off the Jewish Khazars . Princeton: Princeton Univ. Near, 1954.
Yehuda ha-Levi. Kuzari . Translated by NR. D. Korobkin ace The Kuzari: In Defense off the Despised Faith. Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson, 1998.

External links

Refer

Dovid Gottlieb, Living up to the Truth
Shlomi Tal, The Sinai Argument (reply to Gottlieb has), also see Gottlieb' S rejoinder.
David Yust, The Kuzari - The Principle and the Formalism (detailed history and analysis).
Martin Winer, The Kuzari Proof - 3 Million Witnesses Edge Be Wrong (discussion off why the argument is not logically sound).
Martin Winer, Reconciling Biblical Numbers: Three Million At the Sinai is making has Mountain out off has Molehill (Alternate interpretations off the Torah suggest tens off thousands Egypt left, not million.).
Betzalel Avraham Feinstein, The Kuzari Principle - has Rigorous Formulation (Proof Formal off the Divine Origin has off the Torah)

-->

Random links: