Kit Carson

See also: Kepler (homonymy)

Johannes Kepler (or Keppler), born on December 27th, 1571 with Weil der Stadt in the Bade-Wurtemberg and dead on November 15th, 1630 with Ratisbon in Bavaria, is a famous Astronome to have studied and have confirmed the heliocentric Hypothèse (the Ground turns around the Sun) of Nicolas Copernic, and especially to have discovered that the Planet S do not turn in perfect Cercle around the Sun but while following ellipse S.

He discovered the mathematical relations (known as Lois of Kepler) which govern the movements of planets on their Orbite. These relations are fundamental because they were exploited later by Isaac Newton to work out the theory of the Universal gravitation. It should however be noted that although it saw just as for the form of the planetary orbits, Kepler not explained the movements of planets by gravity but by the Magnétisme.

It finally gave a major attention to the Optique by synthesizing in 1604 the basic principles of modern optics like the nature of the Lumière, the obscure Chambre, the Miroir S (plans and curves), the lenses or the Réfraction.

The Astéroïde (1134) Kepler was named in its honor. The supernova SN 1604, was also called Supernova of Kepler, or Star of Kepler, because remained visible one year after its explosion of 1604, Képler wrote the most precise description of it.

Lastly, in homage to the large astronomer, NASA gave its name to the Space telescope Kepler which has the role during four years of detecting Exoplanète S telluric and other small bodies orbiting close to the star S of our Galaxie, the '' Milky Way ''. The telescope must be launched in October 2008.

Biography

Kepler is born within a family from Religion Protesting E Luthérien, installed in the town of Weil der Stadt with the Bade-Wurtemberg. Prematurely born with seven hypochondriac months and of weak nature, it suffers all its life from a fragile health. At the three years age, it contracts the Petite pox, which, inter alia after-effects, weakens its sight severely.

The Kepler family is not very ordinary and its environment is not healthier. The father, Heinrich Kepler, are mercenary in the army of the Duc of Wurtemberg, and always in shift, being thus seldom present at his residence. The mother, Catherine - that Kepler describes itself as “small, thin, sinister and quarreller” - had been raised by an aunt who finishes on roughing-hew it for Sorcellerie. Kepler has two juniors: his/her sister, Margarette, to which there remains close, and Christopher, which was always antipathetic for him.

Of 1574 with 1576, it saw with his/her Heinrich little brother - epileptic - in his grandparents, whereas his/her father is in shift and that his/her mother left to her research.

With the return of his/her parents, Kepler moves with Leonberg and between the Latin school in 1577. His/her parents make him discover the Astronomie. Thus, in 1577, his/her mother takes it along in top of a hill to observe the passage of a Comet. On his side, his/her father shows him the eclipse of the Moon of January 31st, 1580, and how the latter became all Rouge. Kepler studied later this phenomenon and explained it in one of its works on the Optique.

Again party in war in 1589, his/her father disappears forever.

Kepler finishes its first three years cycle only in 1583, delayed in particular because of its employment as agricultural day worker, between nine and eleven years. In 1584, it enters to the Protestant Seminar of Adelberg, then, two years after, to the higher Seminar of Maulbronn.

It there obtains its diploma of end of studies and enters in 1589 to the Université of Tübingen. There, he studies initially the ethical , the Dialectique, the Rhétorique, the Greek , the Hebrew , the Astronomie and the Physique, then the Théologie and the Social sciences. He continues his studies there after obtaining a Maîtrise in 1591. Its professor of Mathematical, the Astronomer Michael Maestlin, teaches the heliocentric Système to him of Copernic, which it held to the best students, others in front of then being satisfied with the geocentric system of Ptolémée, which places the Ground in the center of the world. Kepler becomes thus a convinced copernician and remains very close to its professor; he does not hesitate to ask him assistance or council for his work.

Whereas Kepler projects to become minister Lutheran, the Protestant school of Graz request a mathematics professor. He then gives up his studies in theology to take the station and leaves Tübingen in 1594. In Graz, It publishes Almanach S with predictions Astrologique S. At the time, the distinction between Science and Croyance is not yet clearly established and the movement of the stars, ignored still enough, is controlled by the divine laws.

Kepler Maria twice. First once by interest, on April 27th, 1597, with Barbara Müller, who dies in 1612, just like two of their five children - old of one and two months hardly. This marriage, organized by its close relations, links it with a woman with the execrable character which it describes as “fatty and simple of spirit”. Another of its sons dies at the seven years age. Only his/her Susanne daughter and her Ludwig son survive. Then, with Linz the following year, he marries Susanne Reuttinger with which he has seven children among which three die very early. A marriage, this time, happy.

In 1615, his/her mother, then 68 years old, is shown of sorcery. Kepler, persuaded of its innocence, spends six years to ensure its defense near the courts and to write many pleas. It must, twice, turn over in Wurtemberg. It spends one year locked up in the Tour of Güglingen at the expenses of Kepler, having escaped little with torture. Finally, she is discharged on September 28th, 1621. Weakened by these hard years of lawsuit and imprisonment, she dies six months later.

Kepler dies in 1630 with Ratisbon, at the 59 years age.

In 1632, during the War Thirty Year old, the Swedish army destroys its tomb. Its work is found in 1773. Recovered by Catherine II of Russia, they are with the Observatoire of Pulkovo to Saint-Pétersbourg in Russia.

Scientific works

The Mysterium Cosmographicum

See also: Polyhedral regular

In 1596, it publishes its first work, Mysterium Cosmographicum , fruit of its first research on the structure of the Univers. He sees in the laws which govern the movements of the Planet S, a divine message addressed to the Man. In this book, where he affirms his position copernician, he is given for objective to answer three questions carrying about the number of planets, their distance to the Sun and finally their speed.

In its book, it develops a Théorie regular polyhedral making it possible to build a model of the Universe. Kepler noticed that in the Six Sphère S representing the Orbite S of six planets known at the time (of Mercure to Saturn), could be contained the five solids of Plato. The solids of Plato being regular polyhedrons, they were perfect and agreed well with the divine Création. The Sphere being the sixth perfect solid necessary to its model, it corresponded to the Paradis. The first five objects with regular faces represented the Dynamique Universe (the movement of planets). Besides the number of these solids made it possible to explain the number of planets. Each one of them were circumscribed in a sphere, itself circumscribed in the following polyhedron, itself circumscribed in a sphere, and so on. Thus with Saturn the Cube was associated, with Jupiter the Tétraèdre, with Mars the Dodécaèdre, with Venus the Icosaèdre and with Mercure the Octaèdre. The Ground, that God had chosen to reflect its image, marked the separation of two groups of these solids.

Kepler also had to re-examine certain details of the model copernician. This last not places the center of the circular orbits of planets on the Sun, but in variation in order to agree a little about with measurements. For Kepler, the model must remain simple and hold of the divine perfection. However, a point located beside the Sun as centers trajectories is unthinkable! Kepler had realized during its calculations, that the circular orbits of planets presented eccentricity S when one took the Sun for center, and that they were rather elliptic. It held of it account in the construction of its model by assigning to the spheres a certain thickness, proportional to the noticed eccentricity, in which the trajectory of corresponding planet was contained.

Remain the question of the Speed S. to explain them, it allots to the Sun a virtue which induces the movement of planets. It compares this one with the Lumière, which decreases by intensity according to the square of the distance. On the other hand, this force would not be distributed in a spherical way like the emitted light, but would act only on one level, specific to each planet. It from of deduced whereas this force decreases in a way inversely proportional to the distance, and not according to the square of the distance like the luminous intensity. This law was however erroneous and it was necessary for him more than twenty years to rectify it.

This theory which appears completely whimsical to us today, made it possible Kepler to come into contact with its contemporaries Galileo and Tycho Brahé, imperial Mathématicien at the court of Prague. The first informed him of its enthusiasm for the support of its ideas copernicians which it also shares. The second, quite as admiring, invited it to work at his sides.

Kepler has, by working on these subjects, discovered two new solids, as regular as the Greeks, but consisted of convex faces ( to see polyhedrons of Kepler-Poinsot ).

The calculation of the orbit of Mars

See also: Laws of Kepler

Continued for its religious convictions and its ideas copernicians, it must leave Graz in 1600. It takes refuge with Prague, invited by the Astronome Danish Tycho Brahé to become its assistant there. The relations between the two characters were particularly surging; Tycho Brahé not believing in the Héliocentrisme of Copernic but supporting another theory in which the Earth is in the center but another planets turns around the Sun.

Kepler saw in Tycho Brahé a man full with richnesses (his measurements were very precise) but which could not exploit them correctly.

Brahé required of him to calculate the precise orbit of Mars, for which he had noticed a eccentricity in his Trajectoire, considered as an anomaly at one time when one still thought that the Planet S described circles, appears perfect. This task was assigned before with its Longomontanus assistant who then passes to the motion study of the the Moon.

Thinking of achieving its task in a few weeks, one did not have to him less than six years to complete its work. It is during this work that he discovered the two first of the three fundamental laws:

  • the planets describe elliptic trajectories whose Sun is a hearth.
  • the movement of each planet is such as the segment of right-hand side connecting the sun and the planet sweeps equal surfaces for equal lengths of time.

These laws were published in Astronomia Nova in 1609, where it was also the first to put forth the assumption of a rotation of the Sun on its axis.

In 1618 its third great law will come:

  • For all planets, the relationship between the cube of the half main roads of the trajectory and the square of the period is the same one - this constant is independent of the mass of planet.

This work was all the more long as Kepler had to undertake in parallel a study on optics in order to better understand and interpret its observations, and that it “was conditioned still too much” by old the Croyance S in astronomy: it doubts on several occasions the circular nature of the Trajectoire and thinks then of a ellipse, while continuing to try to prove the opposite of it, while coming out from old ideas calling upon the use of épicycle S.

The seventy chapters of the Astronomia Nova thus include/understand all the scientific steps and errors of Kepler which enabled him to lead to its first two laws, but also with other interesting conclusions like the nature of the force responsible for the movement of planets, forces “quasi magnetic”, therefore physical and either divine.

With died of Tycho Brahé in 1601, it was indicated as imperial mathematician at the court of Rodolphe II. It kept this statute until in 1612.

Optics

Whereas he studies the orbit of Mars, Kepler sees the need for also studying the Optique in order to better include/understand certain phenomena observed the such atmospheric Réfraction. As of 1603, it traverses various works on the subject of which that of the Arab Alhazen.

Kepler gathers knowledge of the time in its book Astronomia leave Optica , published in 1604. It explains there the basic principles of modern optics like the nature of the Lumière (rays, intensity varying with surface, infinite speed, etc), the obscure Chambre, the Miroirs (plane and curved), the lenses and the Réfraction of which it gives the law I = n×r , which is correct for small Angle S (the true law - sin I = n×sin R - was given later by Willebrord Snell and Rene Descartes). It also tackles the subject of the vision and the perception of the images by the eye. It is convinced that the reception of the images is ensured by the Rétine and not the Cristallin as it at that time was thought, and than the Cerveau would be completely able to give to the place the reversed image which it receives.

In 1610, it takes note of discovered of four satellite around Jupiter thanks to the observations of Galileo with his Télescope and writes a letter of support published under the title of Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidero ( Conversation with the messenger of the stars ), then after to have observed itself these satellites, it publishes its observations in Narratio de Observatis Quatuor Jovis Satellibus . It is besides Kepler which, the first, in its work of 1611, used the word “Satellite” to indicate the four small stars turning around Jupiter.

The recent invention of the telescope fills with enthusiasm much Kepler which, in 1611, writes a second work of optics, Dioptricae , taking again many topics approached in the Optica by deepening them. In this very mathematical book, it gathers 141 Théorème S explaining mainly the lenses and the operation of a telescope.

The Harmony of the world

Kepler discovered thanks to former work that the Universe was subjected to “harmonic” laws, establishing a link between the Astronomie and the Musique. In the Harmonice Mundi , published in 1619, it allots to planets a musical topic. The variations speeds of these planets are represented by the various notes composing the music. Thus, it was easy to distinguish the most eccentric orbits. But it is as in this work in five volumes as Kepler states its third fundamental law: the square of the period is proportional to the cube of the equatorial radius the ellipse . This one rises from its research on a harmonic model of Universe.

Its other work

Following the observation of a supernova in 1604 - 1605, it will write two years later De Stella nova in fag serpentarii .

The year 1613 is marked by the publication of a work over the chronology and the year of birth of Jesus de Nazareth. Initially in German, then in Latin the following year ( De Vero Ass quo Aeternus Dei Filius Humanam Naturam in Utero Benedictae Virginis Mariae Assumpsit ). It showed there that the Christian Calendrier comprised a five years error and was thus the first to re-examine the birth date of Jesus, in the year -4. Between 1617 and 1621, it writes Epitome Astronomiae Copernicae , an introduction to astronomy copernician.

It built a Table of logarithms, published in 1624 in Chilias logarithmorum with Marbourg, by improving the method of calculating suggested by John Napier. Although completed since one moment already, it published in Ulm its tables rudolphines ( Tabulae Rudolphinae ) in homage to Rodolphe II. These tables of planetary positions were founded on the observations of Tycho Brahé and its own work on the Celestial mechanics . This delay was due to a disagreement with the heirs to Tycho Brahé who did not want that work of Tycho is exploited without perceiving part of the profits, like with their request for modification of the introduction of the work. At the time of its stay with Ulm, it is charged to define Measuring units for the marketing activities.

It emitted the mathematical conjecture called “Conjecture of Kepler” concerning the stacking of the spheres (or of the balls of guns). This one was shown by the American Thomas C. Haul only in 2003 and not completely according to the criteria of the mathematicians. It states that the stacking of the spheres in the densest space is that of the street merchant to knowing the cubic centered face (see crystalline Système).

Four years after its death, is published Somnium , a fantastic text (near to our science fiction) reporting of a voyage of the Earth to the Moon which it would have completed little before its death. It benefits from this account to popularize its ideas copernicians.

Kepler and astrology

Kepler was persuaded that the Astrologie could become a Science as well as physics or mathematics. It was convinced that the positions of planets affected the human ones and influenced the terrestrial Météo. For him, astronomy and astrology were dependant. Thus it tried to pose scientific bases rigorous with astrology while utilizing physical principles.

The publication of its Horoscope S and its predictions made him a good reputation. In 1595, it predicts a rising of the population, a Turkish invasion like one rigorous winter. It compiled later the horoscope of the general Albrecht von Wallenstein who stopped by a “violent one event” in 1634. Wallenstein was indeed assassinated the February 24th of this year. It left two writings on astrology: Of fundamentis astrologiae , in 1601, and Astrologicus , in 1620.

Besides it allots to the stars the misfortune and the behavior of his parents, whom it believes born under an unlucky star, like its first marriage - disappointing - under a “calamitous sky”.

Works of Kepler

Bibliographies of Kepler

  • Caspar (max), Bibliographia Kepleriana , 2nd ED. Martha List. München: C.H. Beck, 1968.
  • Hamel (Juergen), Bibliographia Kepleriana. Ergänzungsband zur zweiten Auflage . München: C.H. Beck, 1998. ISBN 3-406-01687-1.

Existing chronology and French translations

  • 1596, Mysterium Cosmographicum , on the relation between the distances from planets and the five solid from Plato. Second edition in 1621. French translation: the secrecy of the world , tr. Alain Philippe Segonds (Paris: beautiful Letters, 1984). ISBN 2-251-34501-9. the secrecy of the world , SUCH n°228, 1993, ED. Gallimard

  • 1601, Of fundamentis astrologiae certioribus , on astrology.
  • 1604, Astronomia leave Optica , on optics and the vision. Partial French translation: Paralipomènes in Vitellion , tr. Catherine Chevalley (Paris: J. Vrin, 1980).
  • 1606, De Stella nova in fag serpentarii , on the supernova of 1604.
  • 1609, Astronomia Nova , states the first two fundamental laws.
  • 1609, Strena sive of Nive sexangula . French translation: the New Year's gift or snows sexangulaire , tr. Robert Halleux (Paris: J.Vrin-CNRS, 1975). ISBN 2-222-0184-0.
  • 1610, Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidero , letter of support for Galileo.
  • 1611, Narratio de Observatis Quartet Jovis Satellibus , account of the four Jupiter satellites observed. French translation of these the last two texts: Discussion with the celestial messenger. Report/ratio on the observation of the Jupiter satellites, by Isabelle Puppet (Paris: beautiful Letters, 1993). ISBN 2-251-34507-8.
  • 1611, Dioptricae , on optics, lenses and the eye.
  • 1614, De Vero Ass quo Aetermus Dei Filius Humanam Naturam in Utero Benedictae Virginis Mariae Assumpsit , work over the year of birth of Christ.
  • 1615, Stereometria doliorum vinarorum , on the usual measuring units in the trade.
  • 1617 - 1621, Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae , on astronomy copernician.
  • 1619, Of cometis libelli very , treated on comets.
  • 1619, Harmonice Mundi , states the third fundamental law and theory on the musical harmony.
  • 1620, Astrologicus , reflections on astrology.
  • 1624, Chilias logarithmorum , table of logarithms.
  • 1627, Tabulae Rudolphinae , tables of positions based on the observations of Tycho Brahé.
  • 1634, Somnium, seu opus posthumum of astronomia , fantastic account of a voyage of the Earth to the Moon. French translation: the dream or lunar astronomy , by Michele Ducos (Nancy: University presses of Nancy, 1984). ISBN 2-86480-141-8.

Complete works

The edition of reference of complete works is in the course of publication in Munich, in the Beck editor:

  • Kepler, Gesammelte Werke , hrsg. Max Caspar, Walther von Dyck. München: C.H. Beck, 1938 S.
  • vol. 1, Mysterium cosmographicum. Of stella nova ; hrsg. Max Caspar. München: C.H. Beck, 1938; Neudr. 1993. 508 S. ISBN 3-406-01639-1.
  • vol. 2, Astronomiae leave optica. AD Vitellionem Paralipomena ; hrsg. Franz Hammer. München: C.H. Beck, 1939. 465 S.
  • vol. 3, Astronomia nova aitiologetos seu Physica coelestis ; hrsg. Max Caspar. München: C.H. Beck, 1938. 487 S.
  • vol. 4, Kleinere Schriften. Dioptrice ; hrsg. Max Caspar. München: C.H. Beck, 1941. 524 S.
  • vol. 6, Harmonices Mundi libri V ; hrsg. Max Caspar. München: C.H. Beck, 1940; Neudr. 1990. 562 S. ISBN 3-406-01648-0.
  • vol. 7, Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae ; hrsg. Max Caspar. München: C.H. Beck, 1953. 617 S.
  • vol. 8, Mysterium cosmographicum. Of cometis. Tychonis Hyperaspites ; hrsg. Franz Hammer. München: C.H. Beck, 1963. 516 S.
  • vol. 9, Mathematische Schriften ; hrsg. von Franz Hammer. München: C.H. Beck, 1955. 2nd ED. 2000. 560 S. ISBN 3-406-01655-3.
  • vol. 10, Tabulae Rodolphinae ; hrsg. Franz Hammer. München: C.H. Beck, 1969.
  • vol. 11-1, Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium ; hrsg. Volker Bialas. München: C.H. Beck, 1983. 596 S. ISBN 3-406-01659-6.
  • vol. 11-2, Calendaria and Prognostica. Astronomica undervalued. Somnium seu Astronomia lunaris ; hrsg. Volker Bialas & Helmuth Grössing. München: C.H. Beck, 1993. 561 S. ISBN 3-406-37511-1.
  • vol. 12, Theologica. Hexenprozess. Gedichte. Tacitus-Uebersetzung ; hrsg. Jürgen Hübner, Helmuth Grössing. München: C.H. Beck, 1990. 443 S. ISBN 3-406-01660-X.
  • vol. 13, Briefe 1590-1599 ; hrsg. Max Caspar. München: C.H. Beck, 1945. 449 S.
  • vol. 14, Briefe 1599-1603 ; hrsg. Max Caspar. München: C.H. Beck, 1949. 520 S.
  • vol. 15, Briefe 1604-1607 ; hrsg. Max Caspar. München: C.H. Beck, 1951. 568 S.
  • vol. 16, Briefe 1607-1611 ; hrsg. Max Caspar. München: C.H. Beck, 1954. 482 S.
  • vol. 17, Briefe 1612-1620 ; hrsg. Max Caspar. München: C.H. Beck, 1955. 535 S.
  • vol. 18, Briefe 1620-1630 ; hrsg. Max Caspar. München: C.H. Beck, 1959. 592 S.
  • vol. 19, Dokumente zu Leben und Werk ; hrsg. Martha List. München: C.H. Beck, 1975. 551 S. ISBN 3-406-01674-X.
  • vol. 20-1, Manuscripta astronomica I ; hrsg. Volker Bialas. München: C.H. Beck, 1988. 591 S. ISBN 3-406-31501-1.
  • vol. 20-2, Manuscripta astronomica II ; hrsg. Volker Bialas. München: C.H. Beck, 1998. 651 S. ISBN 3-406-40592-4.
  • vol. 21-1, Manuscripta astronomica III ; hrsg. Volker Bialas, Friederike Boockmann, Eberhard Knobloch alii. München: C.H. Beck, 2002. 651 S. ISBN 3-406-47427-6.

Képler in arts

Paul Hindemith created an opera based on the life of Képler = Die Harmonie der Welt.

Notes and references of the article

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