Inuits

This is an article on the people inuit. For the language, to see Language inuit

---- The Inuits , or Eskimo , are people indigenous artic regions of the Siberia and North America (the Alaska, the Territoires of the North-West, the Nunavut, the Quebec, the Labrador) as well as Greenland. The circumpolar conference inuite gathers Inuits and Inuvialuits of Canada, Kalaallits of Greenland, Inupiaqs and Yupiks of Alaska and Yupiks of Russia. On the other hand, it should be specified that the Yupik S are not of Inuits in the direction of a descent thuléenne. In Greenland, the Canada and in Alaska, there is approximately: 150000 Inuits.

The word Esquimau , which comes from the language shouts, means “which eats the raw meat”. This term is considered pejorative. The word Inuit is the term right.

Inuits prefer the name which they gave each other, that is to say that of Inuits, which means “people” in Inuktitut. The singular is Inuk , the duel is Inuuk and plural is Inuit . The Office of the French language determined recently that in Quebec, one uses only the word Inuit and one grants it like a French word. Now, one writes Inuit, of Inuits and Inuites.

Inuits of North America are not, strictly speaking, of the Amerindian nor of the First nations, although autochtones; their ancestors would have come to America several millenia after the arrival from Paléoasiatiques which are in fact, the ancestors of the Amerindians. There is sometimes confusion between the Inuit terms and Innu. Innus are rather Amerindians who live in the northern forest of the North-East of Quebec and in Labrador.

However, the same political questions arise concerning Amerindian Inuits and the . The most important process of territorial claim in the history of the Canada carried out in 1999 to the creation of the Nunavut, a new territory designed like fatherland of most of Inuits of Canada and whose name means “our ground”. Moreover, in order to answer the claims of Inuits of the area of Nunavik, in the Québécois Arctic, the government of Quebec created the regional Administration Kativik within the framework of the Convention of the Bay-James and Québécois North. In Canada, Inuits are represented by Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami.

The statute of Inuits in Canada and Quebec

With the beginning of the year 1920, the problem on the statute of Inuits remakes surface when O.S. Finnie, the director of the department of the Interior of the Territories of the North-West and Yukon announces that obligations are related to the territorial rights and that the Canadian government should not transfer these responsibilities in education and health care to the tradesmen and the missionaries. Finished had been shocked before by the remarks which the Danish explorer Rasmussun had made with the return of his forwarding of 1921 - 1923 on the Western coast of Hudson Bay. He had deplored the poor wretches living conditions of the Eskimos of this area. Following this report, Finished request there whereas this responsibility is transferred to the department for the Indian Businesses by proposing an amendment with the Law on the Indians to be able to include the Eskimos. This amendment, very discussed at the time, was the object of intense debates to the House of Commons at the point where Finnie had to take its retirement prematurely. Arthur Meighen, a deputy of the conservative opposition in 1924, declares with the Room which the best attitude than the government could have vis-a-vis the Eskimos, would be to only leave them with themselves . After many discussions, the liberal government of the time, in agreement for once with the opposition, announces that the Law on the Indians is not applicable to Inuits. Laisser the Eskimos alone was the slogan with the mode in the Twenties and Thirties, but in reality, the Arctic was invaded by the tradesmen of furs, the missionaries, the whalers, the prospectors and others. It should not be forgotten that one had just discovered important Gisement S oil in the area of Norman Wells, in the Arctic of the West. Economic development without assuming the responsibilities and the consequences which result from this, here is the attitude of the politicians of the époque.
At that time, the Company of Hudson Bay, the good company as called it certain Inuits, had for a certain time founded a whole system of credit with Autochtones. This way of doing ensured the dependence to them and a certain monopoly near the Indian trappers and inuits. In front of the threat of this transfer of responsibilities, the company refused at once and declared that to assume the basic needs at Inuits is an obligation of the Canadian government. Trade above all…
When the administration of the businesses inuites was transferred from the Indian businesses to the office of the police chief of the Territories of the North-West in 1927, the question of the legal status of Inuits of Quebec had remade surface. The police chief then wrote immediately a memo indicating that Inuits of Quebec and Manitoba are not under its authority. The department of the Indian Businesses had of another choice to only agree to cover the expenses of this group of Inuits, but only for the year 1928-29. It will transfer this responsibility to the provinces concerned. The government of Quebec accepts whereas the Eskimos who live on his territory are perceived like citizens of Quebec with whole share and insists on the fact that he will assume his share of responsibility vis-a-vis the needs for the latter, but which he does not want to pay for the former expenditure made by the department of the Interior. But the federal one continues to want to give its services to Inuits of Quebec and to send the invoice to the province. According to Rowat of the department of the Interior, the assistance should be distributed by the missionaries, the tradesmen and the royal Gendarmerie. This expenditure will be assumed by the federal one, and after, the invoice will be returned to the provincial authorities so that they can pay their share. The federal government believes that it is more skilful to deal with the businesses esquimaudes.
In 1931, because of the great depression, the federal government wants that Quebec assumes its full responsibility on Inuits for the province. Quebec refuses at once, it has also financial problems. This last then sends a letter to the government of Canada requiring of him how it manages from there to decide that Inuits of Quebec would have only the statute of citizens of Quebec. The answer was not made wait. Rowat, of the department of the Interior, writes that Inuits are not classified with the Indians defined in the Act of British North America and that the Loi on the Indians do not apply to the Eskimos. They are citizens like any Canadian citizens, without particular status. " With all the respect that I have for the Indians, Inuits are not pupils of Couronne". Quebec retorts at once that article 91 of the Act of British North America includes all the aboriginals of Canada. Rowat retorts whereas the department of Justice does not interpret the Indian term like does it Quebec. He announces in the same letter that the boat of the Company of Hudson Bay will be soon in Wakeham Bay, that he transports the official representatives of the federal government and it is the last place where one will be able to communicate with them. He wants to immediately know the position of Quebec vis-a-vis Inuits residing in the province. And this answer arrived: We maintain our interpretation of the Indian word, however we are ready to continue our arrangement with the federal one for another year . The positions became irreconcilable. The federal one continued at each year to claim with provincial, the refunding of the expenditure incurred for Inuits of Québec.
Still in 1933, the federal government sends another letter to Quebec meaning to him that it does not accept any responsibility on the Eskimos for Quebec. Quebec then pays the account of 1930-31 with the Company of Hudson Bay and announces at the same time that it is its last payment. The company answers with eagerness that it cannot take any responsability for the assistances brought to Inuits of Quebec, but that on another side, it is not necessary that human beings die of hunger because there is difference in opinion between the two governments. Taken between the tree and the bark, the Company of Hudson Bay asks for security to continue the supply of the stations on Western bank of Hudson Bay. Taschereau, the Prime Minister for Quebec of the time, answers the company that the government of Quebec will take soon the actions necessary, before the Supreme court of Canada, to regulate this problem of jurisdiction. The CBH will then continue to make credit in Inuits of Quebec for the needs for first need like the farine.
That it is the federal government, the provincial government, the Company of Hudson Bay, all play poker with the wellbeing of Inuits of Quebec. April 2nd, 1935, the drama moves then in Supreme court. It is necessary that the latter answers the question raised by Quebec: Does the Indian term used in article 91 of the Act of British North America of 1867 include also the Eskimos residing in the province of Quebec? the affirmative response in an unanimous opinion of all the judges will arrive on April 5th, 1939, and as it is the case for several legal decisions, that brought more problems than that did not regulate any. The initial reaction of federal was to call some of this judgment in front of the private Council of London. Federal elections were started, then Germany invades Europe starting the Second world war; it was made so that the cause is never returned to London. During all this time, the legal situation of Inuits of Quebec had not been clarified for as much. The federal administrators separated the jurisdiction on a side and the responsibility for the other. It was not necessary especially that Inuits obtain a particular status like the Indians. They are free and responsible citizens. One occupies oneself of them but without particular privilege. In any case, that it is for Inuits or the Indians, the goal was the same one: assimilation, as soon as possible, with the dominant culture. If ever the federal administrators for the Arctic had had to write a law on the Eskimos, here the spirit which animated them at that time: If a law on the Eskimos were to be promulgated, we will need to define the Eskimo term. However, if we accept the fact that the Eskimos are not subjects of the Canadian government, but simply, an small group of underprivileged living in a harsh environment, it does not seem which we have the need to define more than the definition that we give to the Canadian-French, to the Chinese-Canadians or to any other ethnicity. And ironically, it is this way of thinking which was used for the government of Quebec in the Sixties when it changed its position for what had milked with its responsibility vis-a-vis Inuits for the province. Suddenly, the North of Quebec and its inhabitants became interesting for the provincial government. It was Rene Lévesque, liberal deputy at the time whom was in load of the businesses of North for Quebec. It should not be forgotten that he was also the Minister for the natural resources and that he is the father of the nationalization of electricity. The provincial elected officials of the time discovered the enormous potentials of hydroelectric development to the James bay and in Québécois north. The economic interests exceeded the interests philanthropiques.
once more After all these years of argument, the federal government accommodated very favorably this transfer of responsibility towards the province. The Pearson Prime Minister explained that the government policy, after one transitional period, was to integrate Autochtones of Canada into the federal and provincial programs normal for all the Canadians. Thus, it will be easier for the Canadians to accept than Autochtones are equal socially speaking. It is with this same philosophy that Trudeau arrived with its White paper of 1969 on the First nations. As we saw previously, the Indians refused it at once and it had to put it side. But Inuits of Quebec were not at all of agreement with this change of authority. Certain residents of Hudson Bay even threatened to move on the Belcher islands. The co-operatives inuites of Quebec passed to two hair to dissolve and from going to reform itself in Sanikiluaq. But the Québécois authorities ensured to them that they would assume all their responsibilities for provincial jurisdiction. But Quebec did not want any more that these services are ensured by federal agents. The Head office of New Quebec was then founded and during the ten years which followed, all the services were available in double. The clock of the jurisdiction had thus returned in the same place as to beginning of the year 20. In short, Inuits of Canada are still not included in the Law on the Indians, therefore still do not have a particular legal status.

Prehistory

Neolithic cultures of the North-East of Siberia (8000 to 2000 years before J.C.)

the territory

Towards 8000 before J.C and during the 6000 years which followed, at the moment when the Bering Strait was invaded by water, of the small groups of hunters arrive in Alaska. There are strong chances that these people crossed on the ice-barrier between the Old one and the New World. In this part of the Bering Strait, according to the geographical location of the islands Diomède, there is only one score of kilometers at most between two grounds. Therefore, only three or four days of walk were necessary to make the voyage. According to the excavations of the oldest sites alaskains, these people were microlithic tradition of the Arctic which is very similar to the groups of the Neolithic of Siberia. Cs hunters never reached the southern part of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands. They were rather spread quickly in Arctic Canada and the Greenland with the continuation of musk oxen or Marine mammals.

natural resources and activities of subsistence

The latter brought with them a technology of cut stone tools which were completely unknown in America. There were mainly microlames which are small stone plates obtained by percussion. Moreover, tiny triangular blades being used as points of projectile most probably constituted the first index of the use of the arc and the arrow in North America.

origins and descents

One can recall the origin of the ancients by the study of the languages used by the latter and the physical characteristics of the populations concerned. It is known today that all the North-American groups of Inuits have related languages. Moreover, the languages inuites have important affinities with that of the Aléoutes, which lets believe that they possibly have the same origin. Moreover, the languages inuites and Aleutian Islands have a distance family ties with Tchoukchis, Koriaks and Kamtchadales of the North-East of the Siberia. Also, the Eskimos and the Aléoutes have similar racial characteristics with people of the peninsulas Tchoukotka and Kamchatka. One indicates them as being of Arcto-mongoloïdes. It as should be added as we employ the term “Paléoesquimaux” to identify these groups of hunters of a deep past but the relation between descent and the various cultures inuites which followed is not as clear as one believed it at the time of the first discovered archéologiques.

Paléoesquimaux old (8000 to 1000 years before J.C.)

the territory

According to the similar dates of seniority of the sites of the Tradition of the tools microlithic, energy of Alaska in Greenland, we can suppose that Paléoesquimaux old invaded the polar territories with speed. They were skilful to exploit a new territory beyond the seasonal migrations. We know that the latter were hunters of the Scandinavian forests of Siberia which adapted to the areas of tundra and ice-barrier. It was the first phase of territorial extension of a good part of the Canadian Arctic and Greenland, still uninhabited at that time. The similarity of the technology of old Paléoesquimau is striking from one area to another. One notices there a degree of cultural cohesion and conservatism in time and space. Paléoesquimaux old were the first to make a success of a certain adaptation in spite of the climatic constraints of the North-American Arctic. These constraints were the freezing cold, the poverty of food of vegetable origin, the seasonal availability of animal proteins, a limited number of species available, the scarcity of fuel and raw materials essentielles.

the natural resources and activities of subsistence

Perhaps at the beginning, they were attracted by the herds of caribous and once on the spot, they would have discovered musk oxen and the seals of the Arctic coasts. There is no doubt, that once arrived in the High-Arctic, the musk ox became the center of interest of Paléoesquimaux old. The defensive in line or circle used by these animals was transformed into advantage for hunters which had dogs. The immobility of the herd thus taken with the trap made it possible to the men to approach the animals what facilitated the use of the arc or the lance. Once the output meat, it was packed up in the skins and was transported towards the campings. It was surely the most difficult part of all the operation. In fact, hunting for musk ox was most possibly much easier than hunting for the whale and the Morse, the caribou during its migration, the seal with its holes of breathing. Moreover, during the summer, the diet was supplemented with Arctic migratory birds, eggs, rabbits and fish anadromes.

the social organization

Nothing lets to us believe that they had boats and sledges with dogs, they would thus have moved with foot on this immense territory of: 5000 km of west in are and: 3000 km of the south in north. Moreover, the Igloo and the steatite oil lamp (stone with soap) were absent at that time what was to make the life rather hard and précaire.

the exchanges and trade

The stone tools which one finds in the campings of the microlithic Tradition of the Arctic are products of invoice completely different from the traditions former of Alaska but very similar to those of the Neolithic eras of Siberia. All this tools were extremely small. It included/understood microlames, gravers for the cutting of the bones, tiny triangular blades being used as points of harpoon and arrow. Possible meetings with Indians of Antiquated the maritimien of Labrador enabled them to discover the harpoon with detachable head, very effective for hunting for the seals and the Morses. This innovation was spread from one end to another of the Arctic like a powder trail. This new technology surely transformed their way of living and of improving in a tangible way, the activities of subsistance.

the origins and descents

Research by Danish archeologists shows that three formations of this time: Independancian, Saqqaquien and Prédorsétien are actually three regional cultures, slightly shifted in time, but coming from the same microlithic culture. Three alternatives of the microlithic Tradition of the Arctic were discovered in the Canadian Far North and Greenlandic: Indépendence I of the High-Arctic, Saqqaqiens of Greenland and the culture prédorsétienne of the islands and the coasts of the Low-Arctic.

Culture of Independence I (2000 to 1700 years before J.C.)

the territory

All in the north of the icecap of Greenland, on banks of the fjord Independence (Ground of Peary), Eigel Knuth in 1948, discovers the remainders of the most septentrional population of the sphere which lived in the area most isolated and afflicted of all Arctic. These vestiges of campings, located on the highest stages of beach, therefore oldest, would go up according to the dating with radiocarbon between 2000 and 1700 years before J.C. One found later, of the sites of occupations similar in other places to the north of Greenland like on the islands Ellesmere, Devon and Cornwallis in the High-Arctic canadien.

the natural resources and activities of subsistence

In north of Greenland and on the Ellesmere island, people of Independence I mainly seem to have driven out the Musk ox. On the other hand, on the Devon island, one rather found good quantities of bone of seal, Morse and polar bear. Like the polar Eskimos of the 19th century, people of Independence I drove out only very little the caribou. Because of this characteristic, one thinks that their clothing was rather made musk ox skins, polar bear, of fox, hare or birds. As example, the caribou being completely absent from islands Belcher on arrival from first abroad, the inhabitants of Sanikiluak got dressed with Anorak S made entirely of skins of oiseaux.

the social organization

The campings are made of one to four family tents, provided with a hearth open to the center with spaces of bed on each side. Space for 4 to 6 people were available in each tent. These small villages of tents thus gathered a group of 20 to 30 residents. The minor amounts of charcoal (Arctic willow and floated Wood) and of carbonized bones let believe that fire was a very occasional luxury. It should be remembered that these old populations did not build an igloo and did not have an oil lamp. Their tents were surely covered with heavy musk ox skins supported by floated wood posts. The spall tools manufactured, the microlames, the Graver S to work the tine and the ivory, the scrapers to prepare the skins and the points of projectiles are really of Neolithic invoice. There is no resemblance to the tools inuit more recent. Moreover, it should be specified that these people did not know the Traîneau with dogs and did not manufacture boats to move. In conclusion, although one knows little thing about the life of the small groups of Independence I, we can suppose that they surely had a very difficult life where the Famine returned regularly during the long polar nights and the intense cold of the extreme north of Canada and Groenland.

the exchanges and trade

The majority of the raw materials found in the sites of occupation is of local source. There is perhaps an exception with bones of Morse exchanged with people living on banks surrounding the Polynie of Nord.

The culture prédorsétienne (1700 to 800 years before J.C.)

the territory

The occupation of the first populations of the microlithic Tradition of the Arctic concentrates mainly in the northern area of the Hudson Bay, on northern bank of the Détroit of Hudson and around the Bassin of Foxe. The southernmost areas of the Canadian Arctic Archipel were much richer in food resources than the High-Arctic. In the area of Igloolik, a site dated with radiocarbon indicates to us that it is old of: 3900 years. It is into 1000 before J.C., that Prédorsétiens cross in the Québécois Arctic (Nunavik) by the islands Nottingham and Salisbury while Dorsétiens occupy the islands of the High-Arctic and the north-western coast of Groenland.

the social organization

Although there are several similarities between the tools of Prédorsétiens and those of Independence I, the resemblance is even more marked with the groups microlithic of Alaska. The latter would have left their territories alaskains to spread itself in most of the Eastern Low-Arctic, a few centuries after the groups of Independence I. Contrary to the latter, the campings of Prédorsétiens seem to be used on several generations. One even found there at the time of excavations, of small oil lamps which were to be used to burn grease to give light and a little heat. One also found circles of refuses which enable us to think that they built igloos although no knife with snow was still found. It is also known that they had dogs without the sledge and that the arc and the arrow belonged to the weapons of chasse.

The Saqqaq culture of Greenland (2500 to 800 before J.C.)

the territory

Saqqaquien is the culture which one finds mainly in the area of Saqqaq and Sermermiut on the west coast and south-east of Greenland. The territory extends from the district of Thulé in north to the district of Nanortalik in the south. East coast, southern point of the island until the Bay Scoresby towards north. It would seem that a rather significant number individuals occupied this rich person coastal region of Greenland.

natural resources and activities of subsistence

Their mode of subsistence rested mainly on the caribou and the small marine mammals. The excavations show us that they exploited all the ecological niches available. We found the bones of at least 45 species of Vertébré S as well as the remainders of Mollusque S. By the examination of the tools, we know that they drove out the Baleine, the seal, the Mammifère S terrestrial, the birds in great number and the fish by including there cod and the Omble knight.

the social organization

The archeological sites saqqaquiens show us that there was an active large range of dwellings of the semi-underground double-house with common passage to the simple tent. For the manufacture of the tools, they used several kinds of local stones, wood, the bones, the tines, the ivory and the skins.

exchanges and trade

The stones of size were surely the raw material of exchange between Saqqaquiens. The wood of drift, the tines and the ivory were also objects of trade between the various inhabited areas of this cultural group.

origins and descents

When Saqqaquiens disappear from Greenland, they are replaced by people of Independence II.

Culture of Denbigh in Alaska (3000 to 1000 before J.C.)

the territory

People of Denbigh lived in the north of Alaska, there is: 5000 years (A.A.). They lived in the Toundra with the continuation of animals for food, clothing and the shelters. In 1948, the American archeologist Louis Giddings excavates with the Cape Denbign (Alaska), on the coast of the Bering Sea, of the microlames of Chert and Obsidienne which resembled those found previously in the Gobi Desert (Paléo and Asian Mesolithic era). Giddings also notices that the points of projectiles have similarities with those of Paléoindiens and the antiquated cultures of the New-World. The name of this culture, like much from others besides, thus comes us from the geographical location of this first discovered.

natural resources and activities of subsistence

They spent the summer on the coasts of the Bering Sea and the other seasons, inside the grounds in the search of caribou and fish anadromes.

the social organization

This cultural group known for its stone tools is cut like the scrapers, the points of projectile, the tools for the work of the bone, the blades and the Gouge S.

the origins and descents

Denbighien is very near culturally to the three other entities of what one calls Paléoesquimaux old that we described previously. The exact origins of this culture are not very well-known. Microlithic technology surely took roots in the tradition Paléolithique of Alaska and more surely in the culture paléosibérienne. However, Denbighiens are the ancestors of a whole a series of cultures alaskaines: Old whale-boats, Choris and Norton.

Paléoesquimaux means (1000 before J.C with 500 after J.C.)

the territory

The average term “paléoesquimau” is used as generic expression gathering several regional cultures extending from the island Ellesmere with Newfoundland and from the delta of the Fleuve Mackenzie until the Greenland. They are Paléoesquimaux means which invaded the Arctic, once more.

the natural resources and activities of subsistence

A major difference between Paléoesquimaux old and average was the abandonment of the territories of the interior of the grounds of the Alaska and the Kivalliq. They forsook hunting for the caribou and intensified hunting for the marine mammals on the ice-barrier. The climatic cooling of the time surely had a negative effect on the populations of caribou. The greatest impact which the cooling of the climate had on people is especially expressed by the manner with which it influenced the conditions of ice-barrier and the free water levels of ice which are the polynies.

the social organization

The average shelters of Paléoesquimaux go from the Tente of skins to semi-underground rectangular structures with central hearth. The family groups were surely small and very mobiles, probably organized in local bands, which in their turn, related by blood with the close bands. The stone tools have a typically tiny size and they were worked with a care meticulous person. One counts a large variety of gravers, the majority comprising a polished edge. The latter seem to have been used with a large variety as functions: to cross, dig, engrave and, as they were always worked very hard stone like the chert and the Néphrite, they were ideally adapted for the manufacture of instruments out of ivory, tine and bone. The microlames can not be present or abundant in the sites of average Paléoesquimau. In the places comprising of the favorable conditions to the conservation of wood, one found microlames inserted in handles. Their principal function would have been to be used as knives to slice the meat or to cut the skins for clothing. It is generally believed that the points found on the spot could be useful on heads of harpoon rather than on arrows. There were a large variety of scrapers, knives and adzes. The important instruments in bone and ivory are the needles with an eye dug instead of being perforated with the wick and a variety of harpoons with tilting head. Objets d'art out of ivory, bone, wood and steatite are present of growing number. The shamanism practiced by these people is strongly reflected in the sculpture of the ivory of Morse, of the tine of caribou, the bone, the Stéatite and the bois.

Culture of Independence II (800 before J.C at year 0)

the territory

The stripped grounds of the north of Greenland and the Canadian High-Arctic had been given up by the group of Independence I towards 1700 before J.C. They are only 700 years later, towards 1000 before J.C., that a second culture which one will name Indépendance II arrives in these régions.

the natural resources and activities of subsistence

On the Earth of Peary, the musk ox was the principal terrestrial mammal available, the caribou was completely absent. It should not be forgotten that this very Scandinavian area is a hard stone desert. In the lakes of the interior, ombles knights could be captured and many birds Migrateur S visited the area during the beautiful season. On the coast of the Fjord Independence, one could find some Polar bear S, Morses, seals ringed and sometimes of the Narval S.

the social organization

The dwellings of Indépendancien II are mainly tents of skins. There are no solid structures and no steatite lamp for the heating and lighting was found. Space inside the tents is conceived for 4 to 6 people and a tendency indicates to us that a gathering from 4 to 6 tents trained a clan. One can affirm that 20 to 40 people travelled and drove out together.

exchanges and trade

Considering poverty in resources of the area, there do not seem to have been many trade or exchanges.

origins and descents

According to the provision in chain of the campings on the beaches and the form of the dwellings, there are great similarities between Indépendance I and II. It is in the points of harpoon and other tools lithic that a notable difference is noticed. These objects of cut stone resemble rather those of Prédorsétiens of the islands Cornwallis, Bathurst, Devon and Ellesmere that with those of Independence I of the Earth of Peary. In short, one can easily think that there was a double influence (Prédorsétien and Indépendance I) in the culture of people of Independence II.

The culture dorsétienne (1000 before J.C at 1400 after J.C.)

the territory

The world of Dorsétiens extended to the west from the island Banks until Ammassalik (Greenland) in the east and from the district from Thulé (Greenland) in north with St-Pierre-and-Miquelon in the south. We also found sites of occupations around Hudson Bay, Labrador and Newfoundland. The culture dorsétienne had reached its apogee between 500 and 1000 after J.C., at the moment when it occupied the majority of the Scandinavian areas and which its single art had acquired very an artistic high level of development. Dorsétiens disappeared from the island of Newfoundland between 500 and 1000 after J.C., in the High-Arctic, it is about the year 1000 while in the Québécois Arctic, one found sites dated up to 1400 after J.C. It is Diamond Jenness, an ethnologist of the National museums of Canada which identified some Artifact S coming from Cape Dorset (Nunavut) as being different from the thuléens objects. It thus gave the name of Dorset to this new still unknown culture at that time (1924).

natural resources and activities of subsistence

The study of the sites dorsétiens shows us, without the shade of a doubt, that the latter were adapted much better to their environment than their Prédorsétiens ancestors. They spent spring and the summer to drive out the Morses which venture on the strike, to harpoon the seal since the coastal bench or on water, using Kayak. Later, they gathered in groups in the places where one found in great number the omble knight and the caribou in their annual migrations. Then, they were to pass the autumn in semi-underground houses while waiting for that the ice is formed. Certain families remained in these ground houses for the remainder of the winter, but the majority of Dorsétiens gathered in villages of igloos on the ice-barrier where they drove out the seal close to the holes of breathing.

the social organization

Between 1000 and 500 before J.C., of new types of dwellings are born, the use of the microlames spreads itself, the knives and the points of weapons in Silex have side notches to fix a handle, moreover, the bowls and lamps out of steatite make their appearance. The knives with snow and the lower parts of shoes of sledge in Ivoire indicates to us that a novel method of hunting on the Banquise becomes more common. As regards the semi-underground dwellings that they built, they were inserted several centimetres in the ground. Of rectangular form, they were sometimes enough large to place up to four small families. An operating area in the center, broadside of two benches of bed were the usual interior provision. The walls and the roof were supported by a wood frame of floatation, coasts of whale and tine of caribou covered with worn skins, mounds of peat, ground and stone. As for the tents of summer, they would have had also a rectangular form and interior installation was very similar to the houses of terre.
Contrary to Prédorsétiens, people of the culture dorsétienne built megastructures (long houses) being able to shelter from 25 to 200 people for certain periods of the year, mainly the summer and the autumn. These gatherings were surely used to create an identity common to the various groups which lived usually separate the major part of the year.

exchanges and trade

It seems that the principal matter of exchanges were certain stones which were used for manufacture of the tools. It should be known that all the areas of North are not provided uniformly in material lithic and mineral. As example, the north-western coast of Greenland had meteoritic Fer while the area of Coppermine, native Cuivre.

origins and descents

Among the various assumptions of the extinction of Dorsétiens, it there with the famine caused by the climate warming of the 11th century, the Murder by the new arrivals which are Thuléens or, the possibility of a total assimilation with the latter, then finally, the arrival of Norrois, with their batches of Microbe S Europeans. It was the end of the “Tuniit”, name given to Dorsétiens by Thuléens which replaced them.

Eskimo cultures of Alaska (2000 before J.C at 1000 after J.C.)

While Paléoesquimaux developed their culture in Arctic Canada and in Greenland, an extremely different evolution continued in Alaska in the area of the Bering Strait. On its side, the Aleutian Islands experienced a gradual development which led to the culture of the Aléoutes of today. The peaceful coast of Alaska, as for it, knew a technological change based on the polished slate which could be at the origin of the Eskimo cultures of this area. The coasts north and west were occupied by microlithic people of the Tradition of the tools of the Arctic, the same culture as those of the Canadian Arctic. Towards 1000 before J.C., there is a stop of several centuries in the human activity in Alaska. After this pause, appears a series of groups like the cultures old Baleinières, Choris and Norton which are a complex mixes microlithism of the Arctic, culture of the coast of the Pacific and groups of the Neolithic of the Eastern Siberia of the same time.

The cultures old Whale-boats (1000 before J.C with???)

We know very few things about the cultures old whale-boats. In fact, there is one village of five houses which was discovered with the course Krusenstern, in the north of the Bering Strait. There were bones of seal in the houses and the bones of whale extended on the surrounding beaches. One can regard this culture as a transitory attempt at co-education, of Aléoutes perhaps, Eskimos or Amerindians.

Culture of Choris (1000 before J.C at year 0)

People of the culture of Choris lived in large oval semi-underground houses and drove out the seal and the caribou. They manufactured also stone tools cut which passably point out those of the microlithic Tradition of the Arctic. As for the cultures old whale-boats, the origin of people of Choris remains nebulous for the moment. These small groups of hunters were perhaps Eskimos of the south of Alaska, or Aléoutes which migrated towards north, or of the Amerindians who had adopted Eskimo habits, and even Siberian immigrants.

Culture of Norton (500 before J.C at 1000 after J.C.)

Still here, a curious mixture of Tradition of the tools microlithic of the Arctic and Siberian Neolithic cultures are felt. As it is possible to follow the traces of the culture of Norton until today, it is certain that Nortoniens were Eskimos. Actually, they are the ancestors of Inuits historical and modern of Alaska, Canada and Greenland.

The old culture béringienne (300 before J.C with 300 after J.C.)

The most known development of the culture of Norton is the old culture béringienne which appeared on the Eastern coast of the peninsula of Tchouktka (Siberia) and on the island the St. Lawrence (Alaska). The major invention of this culture was the Harpon with Flotteur. Thanks to this last, the populations of the culture béringienne could drive out larger marine mammals on board their boats (kayak and oumiak). The float (avataq), made of an inflated seal skin, made it possible to exhaust the animal and prevented it from running, once died. The Seal and the Morse seem to have been the principal food of these Eskimos. To note that the ivory of Morse constituted the primary product of most of their technology. They manufactured of it glasses with snow, crampons, imitations of fins of seal to attract the animal, arcs, arrowheads and the important stopper of the float. As of this time, new permanent villages are born along the coasts of the Bering Sea. They consist of semi-underground houses covered with skins and grass sods. They were provided with a porch cut-cold and were heated by oil lamps in pottery. They also cooked in ceramics pots. In short, these people had a technology developed enough to ensure to them a relative food abundance and a certain comfort in their houses isolated very well and heated.

Culture of Punuk (500 to 1000 after J.C.)

The great majority of the cut stone tools had been replaced by polished Ardoise. The farming technique principal innovation of Punuk is the large head of harpoon for hunting for the whale. The carcass of a boreal whale could provide to a very whole community several tons of meat and grease. As of this moment, there was an important increase in population in the septentrional part of Alaska. It is the old culture béringienne which gave rise to the culture of Punuk. The latter perpetuated the tradition and even improved it in contact with the people of the Siberia of the Âge of iron. These large hunters of whale are the immediate ancestors of all Inuits of the Canadian Arctic and Greenland.

The culture thuléenne (1000 to 1600)

the territory

About 1000 after J.C., of the hunters of whale (Punuk) of the north of Alaska move towards the east. They probably travel in oumiak (large made boat of bent skins) and reach Greenland by the High-Arctic in very little time. One regards Thuléens as being the representatives of the third and last vague of migrations of populations of the Canadian Arctic and Greenland. These important displacements are most possibly related to the climate warming (medieval warming) which affected all Arctic at that time. By continuing the boreal whale, in addition to Greenland, Thuléens were spread in the whole of the Arctic archipelago and around Hudson Bay. This culture bears this name because it is on the north-western coast of Greenland, close to the community of Thulé which one identified for the first time of old houses of the thuléenne type.

natural resources and activities of subsistence

As we stated previously, the boreal whale of Alaska (western) and that of Greenland (is) were the principal resource of these populations. However, they also used the seal, the caribou as well as fish like food resources. In the area of Igloolik, they made also the discovery of many herds of Morses. Actually, these large hunters of whale became, during their migrations towards the east, of the general-purpose hunters. Despite everything, the whale remained the independent source of food and fuel. These large marine mammals allowed Thuléens to carry out a passably sedentary life so that the populations quickly increased. Moreover, for various reasons, a scission could occur in a group and a new camping only appeared in a few days. It is what would explain the rapid extension of their territories of occupation. To nourish themselves and dress themselves, Thuléens drove out also terrestrial animals like the caribou and the Musk ox. As for him, the fish was fished with the three-pronged fork (karkivak). The catches were cut up using a slate knife, in the shape of half-moon, which one calls “ulu”.

the social organization

In addition to the meat and grease of the whales, the bones were used as construction materials. To build ground dwellings similar to those of Alaska, Thuléens were to use the bones, mainly the coasts and jawbones of whale as braces for the roof. The unit was covered with skins and a thick layer of peat and ground. These semi-permanent houses of winter, very well isolated and heated, were to be passably comfortable. Food and the fuel for the lamps came from the surrounding hiding places, covered with heavy stones to protect its contents from the dogs, the wolves, the foxes and the bears. During the summer, all the group moved in tents of skins. Moreover, these people built another type of winter dwellings unknown completion in Alaska: the igloo. They would have invented this technology but would have borrowed from Dorsétiens, the use of the Stéatite in the manufacture of the oil lamps. They also improved the use and the construction of the Traîneau X. Harnais for dogs appear in the sites thuléens of Canada at that time. The villages of first Thuléens counted only some houses of winter and less than one about fifty occupants. This organization of the company thuléenne was to gather around an old man who had the knowledge and the experiment. The remainder of the group included/understood wire of the old man and their families, the families of other male parents and sometimes, the families of its daughters. In short, we can affirm today that the economy of Thuléens was based on hunting for the marine mammals like the whale and the seal.

exchanges and trade

Certain elements of technology resulting from the culture dorsétienne imply to us that there were certain contacts between these two groups. On the other hand, several legends inuites tell that there was combat with Tuniits (Dorsétiens) and that they were driven out better territories of hunting. It is in Arctic Quebec that we find the most recent sites dorsétiens (1400 after J.C.) and it is in this same area which knew the latest arrival of the groups of Thuléens. After several excavations of sites thuléens, it is proven that in Greenland, these people made trade with the populations resident coming from the Scandinavian countries and that in Labrador, there were exchanges with the whalers Basques, Scot and American like with the Missionnaire S.

the origins and descents

Archeology assure us that Thuléens are the last newcomers of the Canadian Arctic and Greenland and that their ancestors, there is: 2000 or: 3000 years, lived on the coasts of Alaska and Siberia. Thuléens are considered, without the shade of a doubt, as being of Inuits. It is almost certain that these people spoke the inuktitut, a Dialecte Eskimo very similar to that used still today by Autochtones of the Far North. However, it seems that the customs and habits thuléens of origin seem richer, to be sophisticated and more uniforms that the subsequent cultures inuites.

Cultural climate changes/changes (1600 to 1850)

The small glacial period (1600 to 1850) forced Thuléens to be divided into multiple local cultures adapting to the new environment of the various artic regions. The occupation of Labrador by Inuits goes back to the 16th century. As of this time, they met Amerindian hunters and European fishermen who exploited already the southernmost part of this coast. In 1770, when the Moraves arrived at Labrador, the latter report that Inuits buildings still drove out the whale. The bad climatic conditions were possibly less felt in this area relatively more in the south that the other areas nordiques.
As for them, people who lived the south and is island of Baffin continued to live the culture thuléenne until the arrival of the American whalers and Scot during the 19th century. However, it is good to announce that Inuits of the south of Baffin like those of Labrador and Quebec left their houses for large houses multifamiliales.
The more one approaches the central Arctic, the more one discovers cultural groups different from their ancestors thuléens. It is during the small glacial period that Inuits d' Igloolik (Igloolik wants to say: where there is houses) left their earth continuity houses to be installed on the ice-barrier in villages of igloos. The summer, they turned over on the coast to drive out the marine mammals using kayaks and inside the grounds for hunting for the caribou or to practice fishing with the omble chevalier.
As for Barren Grounds, in the west of Hudson Bay, these territories were occupied by of Inuits which remained thanks to the caribou and with fish. In short, they monopolized the grounds given up by the Tchippewayans following an epidemic in 1780. Before this date, Inuits of the caribou of today were of culture maritime like that of Thuléens of autrefois.
Between 1200 and 1500, Thuléens arrive in the area of the Pelly bay and the gulfs Dolphin and Union. Considering the absence of large marine mammals in this area, they do not have other choices to adapt to hunting for the seals on the ice-barrier. For Inuits of copper (Kugluktuk), they continued to spend the winter in floated wood and ground, stone dwellings of similar to those their ancestors. In short, the technology of Inuits of the central Arctic seems to us simplistic, rustic and adapted to a new life of nomade.
As regards the Sea Beaufort and River Mackenzie, people of the place had a lifestyle similar to people of the north of Alaska. The winter, they sheltered in large floated wood houses, they made use of oil lamps, carried labrets to the lips and with the cheeks and moved in oumiak. In this corner of the Arctic of the west, the environmental and cultural changes were less perceptible than ailleurs.
To finish, the High-Arctic had been abandoned during cooling. The groups of the area had to die of hunger or left to join their parents on the north-western coast of Groenland.
It is certain that Inuits of today inherited the genetic inheritance and cultural of Thuléens. The first explorers of the Arctic describe us that Inuits met were not maritime culture but rather like a multitude of groups culturally different from one area to another. The true culture thuléenne had disappeared. It seems that all these changes were caused by important environmental changes at the time of the small glacial period. In short, insulation during more: 3000 years, combined with an environment of most extreme produced a single and attractive human culture: Inuits.

The arrival of Europeans

Especially as from the 19th century, the missionaries tried to convert them with the Catholicisme into often seeking with the sédentariser. With others people first, the inuits and populations of the north of Europe sought to find a certain autonomy, which in Canada their was partly granted. But the introduction of the alcohol, the bacterial diseases hitherto unknown under these Latitude S and what is called “civilization” with the radio, the access to the total trade, the Television and the Motoneige was in a few decades, causes of social upheavals and lifestyles.

At the 20th century, the Pandémie of Spanish Grippe decimated many communities inuites, it seems that a saturnic intoxication chronic had serious impacts in the generation of the newborns after the years 1920, whereas the use of the Fusil S was spread. A study led to Canada clearly showed that the cartridges with shot of Plomb could contaminate the Food chain. The lead of the shot in particular poisoned the Oie S which ate them on the spot of hunting. An isotopic analysis of the blood taken in the Umbilical cord of the babies inuits, at the time of the birth, showed that the lead which contaminated them (8 times more babies inuits were reached of lead poisoning to the birth than in the south of Quebec) came many cartridges from hunting, and not of repercussions atmospheric or fish or seals as one had initially believed. Nevertheless, if lead were interdict for the Canadian hunters, a tolerance remained for the Amerindians and the inuits. The reason was that the cartouches with lead were less expensive than those in acier.

Assimilation by the deculturation: Displacements of populations

The reinstalments were regarded as a solution with certain problems perceived by the government or other organizations. In certain cases, the reinstalment accompanied by other changes concerning the life of Autochtones, changes which often resulted themselves from government policies. Our analysis reveals that if the reasons used to justify the reinstalments are numerous and difficult to determine, one can classify the reinstalments in two main categories: those which were of an administrative nature and those which were related to the development. The reinstalments of an administrative nature are displacements of populations intended to facilitate the operations of the government or to meet needs that one perceived at Autochtones. Like example, we can quote: the Intrigues (Nova Scotia), Inuit of Hebron (Labrador), Dénés Sayisi (Manitoba) and certain First Nations of Yukon. To give the autochtones in contact with nature to support self-sufficiency and to move away them from the negative influences of the non-Autochtones establishments, there is Inuits of the island of Baffin towards the island Devon and multiple displacements of Inuits of Keewatin and with Quebec. The development was often used to justify displacements, and this everywhere in the world. The reinstalments are then the consequence of national policies of development of which the acknowledged goal mainly it many is reinstalled or the establishment of industrial projects. For the ground recovery at agricultural ends, we can give like example: Ojibwas (Ontario) and Mongrels of Holy-Madeleine (Manitoba). For the ground recovery for the Urbanization, there is Songhees (Colombia-British). For the construction of Stopping S hydroelectric S, we can quote Cheslattas You in (Colombia-British), the Chemawawin Cries (Manitoba) and of Extremely-George (Quebec).

Reinstalments of an administrative nature

To simplify the things for the government

1. Intrigues of News-ecosse

See also: Amerindian in Canada

2. Inuits of Labrador
In the Fifties, just like the Intrigues of Nova Scotia, Inuits of Hebron and Nutak to the Labrador lived a forced centralization. Because the governments did not have the choice to provide services to all Autochtones, even those of the areas moved away, the politicians decided to gather these populations in the small existing communities of the south of Labrador. Although the saving in predation provided them since always, all the necessary one to a happy and Community life, these Inuits had other choices to only try to adapt to the life of the communities of the south. There are even separate the families coming from the same village. 5 families of Hebron would go to Nain, 10 with Hopedale and 43 with Makkovik. This disordered way to make the things was extremely painful for these Hebronimiuts. As in Nova Scotia, during the removals, the majority of the new houses were not built yet in the villages of reception. Several families had other choices to only pile up in residences of poor quality. As for all reinstalments, perhaps the most important thing, the civils servant did not take account of the bonds which links Inuits with the territory. Paulus Nochasak summarized the situation very well: We had to go in a place which was not our ground . The royal Commission on Labrador of 1974 concluded as the programme of reinstalment in North had been a futile and ill-considered operation successor in title injustices and sufferings as well in Inuits as with the residents of the communities of reception. She concluded that the governmental programs of reinstalment in Labrador had been regarded by the government an end in itself and not as an element of a development process. Other fundamental errors were made owing to the fact that one did not take into account or sought to know the wishes and the aspirations of all those touched by the reinstalment, and also owing to the fact that planning was of a very large médiocrité.
3. Dénés Sayisi (Manitoba)

See also: Amerindian in Canada

4. First nations of Yukon

See also: Amerindian in Canada

For the improvement of the living conditions of Autochtones

1. Multiple reinstalments in the Arctic canadien
It is with a Idéologie of intervention minimalist near the populations inuites that the administrators of North undertook a vast plan of colonization of the virgin territories of the islands Baffin and Devon. Various research however revealed later that reasons for sovereignty of the Arctic territory were also behind this decision of going from before with the first official project of reinstalment of the Eskimos . In 1934,53 men, women and children of Pangnirtung, Lays Inlet and Cape Dorset, with 109 dogs, sledges, kayaks and boats were moved on the island Devon (Dundas Harbor). After two last years on this deserted, the very bad climatic conditions and of ice finally convinced Inuits to want to return on their premises. The alleged experiment intended to test the capacity of Inuits to be adapted to this place, showed a total failure. People of Pangnirtung were repatriated on their premises, in 1936. On the other hand, those of Dorset Cape and Pond Inlet learned with stupor that they would be rather moved in Arctic Bay where a station of draft was about to open. Just a year later (1937), these families were redéplacées in Fort Ross (island Somerset). During ten years, because of the chronic problems of provisioning per boat at this place, Inuits lived almost exclusively of the, cookies of ration and flour. One can read in a ratio of 1943, that reinstalled always maintained the insane idea to turn over to Cape Dorset. In 1947, one transferred them for the fourth time, in Spence Bay (Taloyoak today) this time. One finds still today descendants of this small group of Inuits in this village. It is probably in the episode of the Devon island that the analogy is illustrated most clearly which consists in moving the human ones like pawns on the chess-board of the Arctic. Indeed, an small group of inuits was the subject of successive transplantations in four different places, with the liking of the changing economic interests of the Company of Hudson Bay and with for backdrop the geopolitical interests of État.
In spite of the failure of this foreground of reinstalments, in the Fifties, an administrator of the ministry for the Indian Businesses and North write a long note on a new idea of removals of the populations of the Arctic. For this anonymous author, the solution would be to move them all, in two or three cities of the south of Canada. One thought indeed, with the establishment of a village inuit to Hamilton (Ontario), another with Winnipeg (Manitoba) and the last close to Edmonton (Alberta). This plan would allow a better management of the needs for these people instead of leaving them dissiminés along the 15.000 kilometers of coasts of the Actique ocean. As for their civilization, it is appropriate to be opposed to it implacably, because of the little of hope to see it evolving/moving . Here is an good example of a certain Racist ideology which reigned among the civils servant and the politicians of the time. Fortunately, this idea that one can describe as ethnocentrist, forever be application.
While the civils servant prepared the relocalization of Inuits towards the South, the projects aiming at multiplying the reinstalments in the Extreme-Arctic went good progress. Still for reasons not acknowledged of sovereignty on the Arctic archipelago, the government of Canada prepared one of the most tragic stories of the Scandinavian areas. It was necessary to find a solution with the Eskimo problem of the time and these removals were to be presented like spectacular near the Canadian population of the south. Once more, there had been promise of better day on behalf of the Canadian government near these forced migrants. July 25th, 1953. 34 people (7 families) of Port Harrison (Inukjuak) embarks on the ship C.D. Howe in direction of the island of Ellesmere and Cornwallis in the High-Arctic. Three days later, 3 families (16 people) of Lays Inlet join them on the steel bridge of the governmental ship. The following day, C.D. Howe is able at Craig Harbor (Ellesmere island) to unload 5 families there. Henry Larsen, a senior officer of the royal Gendarmerie of Canada, described them as follows: They dirty, are déguenillés, of neglected appearance, a batch of colonists not having a beautiful look . The others, remained on the boat, are transferred on the Brise-glace Iberville which will vainly try to join a little more Alexandra Fiord in north. After this fallen through attempt, the ice-breaker returns in Craig Harbor to unload two another families there. The 18 Inuits remainders, will be brought a few days later to Resolute Bay. Without warning no, families were thus separate. One of exiled will say later: We were completely abandoned on the beaches of Craig Harbor and Resolute Bay . One year later, those of Craig Harbor will be moved one second time, with 100 kilometers more in the west, that is to say in Grise Fiord. The corporal Glenn Sargent of the gendarmerie, one year after the arrival of Inuits with Craig Harbor informed his superiors while writing: that the area of Craig Harbor is their Garden of the Eden . He also wrote that Inuits had much success to hunting, actually, it was exactly the opposite. With these so Scandinavian latitudes, the game is done rare. In the polar night which lasts four months, a hunter had even last long hours to await a seal above its hole of breathing, but actually, this black spot was only one droppings of fox. Between 1953 and 1960, the majority of the children of Resolute had become Orphelin S. the parents had died of despair, diseases and too extreme conditions. A famous politician of the time even declared: If they want to return, that they pay . It is only at the end of the Nineties, that the federal government agreed to compensate the families which were moved. However, he always refused to excuse and acknowledge the true reasons of these catastrophic reinstalments.

Reinstalments related to the development

See also: Amerindian in Canada

Effects of the reinstalment

the report/ratio with the ground, the environment and the culture
the effects économiques
effects on the santé
social effects and politiques
effects on the relationship between Autochtones and non-Autochtones

Life in the Arctic today

Economy

The Inuit language

Inuits speak about the languages of the linguistic family eskimo-aléoute.

The language inuit is primarily oral.

From generation to generation the Mythe S, accounts, songs and chamanic formulas were transmitted orally. The language becomes written at the 18th century and the 19th century with the arrival of the missionaries in Canada in order to facilitate his adhesion with Christianity.

It is transcribed in Latin characters for the Territories of the North-West and Labrador. For Nunavut and Nunavik the transcription is done in syllabic characters.

Nowadays, the Latin characters being majority, a project wants to impose a single system for the whole of the inuits.

In Nunavut, the language official the Inuktitut is in syllabic character. It is an identity symbol today. It is also the language of teaching until the third school year of the primary education.

In Nunavik, the inuktitut is not recognized as a language official but is very time recognized in the administration. He is taught until the second school year of the primary education. Then, the pupils choose one second language of teaching.

Inuits in the world

Siberia

Alaska

December 18th, 1971, the autochtones of Alaska greeted the beginning of a new era. Indeed, with the agreement and the signature of the president of the United States, Inuits of Alaska became the happy owners of 16 million hectares and profited from a considerable economic power (the basement being filled of mining richnesses). That this action serf of model or lesson for the government Canadian and Danish, which can act positively for many Inuits present on their territories.

Currently, population of Inuits of Alaska east of approximately: 24000 inhabitants, mainly Yupiks and Inupiaqs. In Alaska, the populations inuits very quickly adapted to the lifestyle of the Americans living in Alaska, called “outsiders”.

Canada

The population inuite of Canada is made up of approximately: 40 000 people.

detailed Article: Inuits Netsilik

Greenland

Greenland is the principal stronghold inuit, with: 38000 inhabitants. The major part of the population is in the west of Greenland. Inuits of Greenland are Inuits the most known, and the most observed. Their population is in growth and their standard of living increases. The Danish government still did not concede grounds in Inuits.

Homage

A Inukshuk was inaugurated on October 24th, 2002 on the place of the Assembly-Main road, with Quebec, as a sign of friendship enters the Québécois nation and the nation inuite . The work of art 2,5 m height was carried out by assembling large stones coming from the four corners of the Nunavik.

Gallery

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