History of the Western Sahara

The history of the the Western Sahara is that of a territory which organized forever in State-nation. Desert territory populated by some wandering tribes, its history is closely related to that of its neighbors, in particular the Morocco and the Mauritania. After some unfruitful attempts at the 15th century, the Spaniards make of it a colony between 1884 and 1975. The Décolonisation is carried out under bad conditions because it leads to the annexation and the invasion of the Western Sahara by Morocco and Mauritania and to the armed struggle of an independence movement, the Front Polisario. The Western Sahara is today a non-self-governing territory according to UNO, asserted by the Morocco and the Arab République sahraouie democratic, its statute final remains outstanding since the cease-fire of 1991.

First occupants

Between - 5000 and - the 2000 territory of the Western Sahara is a populated Savane elephant S, of Girafe S and Rhinocéros. The first modern inhabitants leave there traces of rupestral Art and parietal. It was believed a long time that they were the Bafours, black people agropastoral, but of archaeological research also indicates the presence of White to the north of the current Mauritania.

Progressive turning into a desert from - 2000 (Holocene time ) drain the lakes and drive out the animals and Bafours towards the south. During the millenium before our era, they are gradually replaced by Nomade S Berbères, mainly Sanhadja, are come from north. Some isolated communities, alive in the oases, persisted under the Exonymie Haratin .

Some coastal sites on the Atlantic facade of the Morocco were colonized by the Phéniciens and Carthaginois, of which Hannon the navigator towards the 6e-5e centuries before our ère ; no conclusive trace was found by it in the Western Sahara. The Périple of Hannon mentions a “island of Encircled” (also “island of Hern” or “island of will hérons”) which could be the island of Arguin (Mauritania) or the island of Herne close to Dakhla.

The Romains do not exceed the Maurétanie tingitane (northern half of Morocco). They are conscious of the existence of gold caravans crossing the Sahara but do not venture in the desert. Pline Old the and Ptolémée mention the Draâ ( Daratis ) in their writings.

Turning into a desert between - 300 and +300 returned any contact with the very difficult outside world until the introduction of the Dromadaire S into the area. Confronted with an hostile environment, the Berber ones are probably dependant on some communities of the desert and the caravans.

Islamization of the Western Sahara

See also: History of Morocco

The Islamisation of the Western Sahara started as of the 8th century but was surface a long time, most of the population preserving of the practices animists. She is not directly the fact of the Arab conquest, in fact Berber themselves propagated Islam towards the south while trading more and more regularly through the Sahara. In particular, the gold of the Senegal is essential to the Arab States to be able to strike their currency.

In 745, the governor of the Ifriqiya, Abderrahman Ibn Habib, makes build a series of well between the south of Morocco and Aoudaghost (oasis and commercial town, in the south of current Mauritania).

Towards the 9th century, the Berber confederation of the Zénètes (kharidjite) control oases and commercial centers in the north of the desert, of which Sijilmassa. Three large Berber tribes sanhadja (malékites) control the désert then;: the Djoddala in the west, close to the Atlantic coast, the Messoufa in north, in the valley of Draâ and the Anti-Atlas, and the Lemtuna in the center and the south. One of the caravan roads most important connects Sijilmassa to the Empire of Ghana and it passes by Aoudaghost, become the most important city of Lemtuna. It is there that the salt, extracted in north desert, is exchanged against the Or Bambouk.

Towards the end of the 10th century, Ghana seizes Aoudaghost and Lemtuna takes refuge in the Adrar Mauritanian while the other Berber ones are submitted to the Ghanaians. Zénètes drive out at the same time Sanhadja de Sijilmassa.

At the same time, the dynasty of the Idrissides which reigned on Morocco is overcome by the Fatimides then the Omeyyades de Cordoue.

At the beginning of the 11th century, the emir Tarsina founds a new confederation sanhadja starting from Lemtuna, Djoddala and Messoufa. Tarsina is killed shortly after (1023) and his/her son-in-law Yahya Ibn Ibrahim succeeds to him.

Almoravides (1030-1147)

Arabisation of Berber (1147-1405)

The fight of Almoravides against the Hilaliens (of the Arab tribes come from the east, sent by Fatimides) then their fall in 1147 with the hands of Almohades, contribute to disorganize the caravan roads of the west of the desert, with the profit of Tombouctou more in the east. Sanhadja are found thus isolated from the Maghreb during one century. In Morocco, the Almohades (resulting from Zénètes) concentrate their attention towards north and is.

The following newcomers are the Banu Maqtil at the 13th century, of the Bedouin Arab come from the Yemen, initially in support for the Mérinides opposed to Almohades. Following the hostility of Mérinides themselves, named Maqtil tribes Banu Hassan leave the valley of Draâ and migrate towards the south, going as far as Mauritania. They enter in sporadic conflicts with Sanhadja and dominate the area as from 1400, while being combined in particular with the Djoddala against Lemtuna. The emirate of the Oulad Delim recovers the south of the current Western Sahara while that of Oudaia controls the north of Mauritania. The Berber ones have a statute of “second class” but can obtain all their rights while converting to Islam. The Islamization of the territory becomes really complete about this time, and the Berber and Arab people mix little by little (except notable Touareg, almost direct descendants of Sanhadja), giving rise to the people Moor. The Arab dialect of Banu Hassan, or Hassaniya , is always spoken by the Moors and Sahraouis.

Ibn Khaldoun leaves a last testimony written on Sanhadja as an autonomous entity, little before its death about 1405.

In the south, Hodh and Tagant (whose Aoudaghost) pass under the domination of the Empire of Mali.

At the 13th century, Ibn Fatima is the first sailor to reach the Baie of the greyhound where it is failed. It is then under the control of Djoddala. In a Planisphere of 1320, the Djoddala territory extends from the island of Arguin to the Irrigation channel will el-Hamra. Some other Moslem navigators still fail themselves 13th and 14th century, they are generally well accommodated by the recently Islamized population.

Trans-Saharan trade about 1400

In the west of the Sahara, the Sijilmassa-Teghazza-Aoudaghost track remains most important. More to the east, the tracks connect the Ifriqiya to Tombouctou and Gao. Ibn Khaldun brings back the existence of an annual caravan of 12 000 camels.

The principal cargoes are salt and gold. Salt is extracted in the north, whose Irrigation channel will el-Hamra and Teghazza, in north from Mali current, and transported in blocks. Gold is extracted in the south, in the Bambouk then the Bouré (in current the Guinea) and the Akan (future Coast-with-the Or), is transported in the form of gold dust and is struck in currency in the cities of north. Several Arab writers affirm that with the Sudan, gold pushes like carrots . The Sudaneses import also horses, fabrics, copper, money, pearls, cauris, glassmaking, Datte S, Figue S and many finished goods. They export slaves, spices, Nut of cola, skins or ivory.

Massoufa are famous like guides. Other Berber tribes live tributes paid by the caravans not to be attacked and during second half of the 14th century, the many raids of the Arab tribes recently arrived in the area contribute to disorganize the trade and to support Tombouctou at the expense of Oualata.

European incursions (1434-1541)

First voyages

The first forwarding known towards the Sea of Darkness, carried out by Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi, share of Genoa in 1291. She hopes to reach the the Indies by sea route but she disappears without leaving traces.

The Catalan Jaume Ferrer disappears in 1346, it is mentioned on the Planisphère of Cresques (1375) as having left per mar Al Riu Gold . It is probably about a reference to the river Senegal whose high content in gold was known but the name Río de Oro applies later to the south of the Spanish Sahara.

Sailors Dieppois would have reached the Guinea in 1364-1410 ; according to Mercer, these forwardings are invented.

About 1400, Europeans arrived to the Canary islands and the African coast adjacente ; they know the name of Irrigation channel will el-Hamra since 1350. At that time, Sanhdaja and Hassinya occupy the coast while to the south Djoddala pass under the domination of the Oulad Delim.

The first European explorers unload close to the Cape Bojador in 1405 and attack a caravane there; ; other raids occur but Europeans also try to trade. Vis-a-vis a determined local opposition, they remain confined at the coast.

Establishment of the Portuguese

Under the impulse of Henri the Navigator, Gil Eanes is the first to cross the course Bojador in 1434 and to return. Between 1434 and 1446, about fifty caravel S Portugueses arrive to the Senegal river. The Portuguese are installed on the island of Arguin (in current Mauritania) in 1445, and bring back spoils of gold and esclaves ; they establish their strong first in 1448 there. The chronicle of these forwardings is held by Gomes Eannes de Azurara. In 1445, João Fernandes is held for seven months like Otage by Sanhadja, of which it does not include/understand Arabic hassinya initially; ; it brings back the first testimony of the wandering life for Europeans and states in particular that the tribes are not subjected to the kingdoms of the the Maghreb. In 1455, Henri prohibits the raids of conversion at Sanhadja.

In 1456, following confrontations between the Cape Ghir and the course Bojador, the pope Calixte III chooses this last like dividing line between Castille (in north) and Portugal (in the South).

About 1487, the Portuguese bring back gold and approximately 1 000 black slaves per annum ; they buy them to the nomads against corn and fabric (one recognizes the important men with their European fabric clothing). The nomads exchange themselves of the brought horses of Morocco against the slaves whom they obtain with bottom prix ; they use also Cauri S to trade between them. The Portuguese also hold several Pêcherie S on the coast, where they make dry their catches.

Strong Spanish

In 1449, the king Jean II of Castille grants to Juán de Guzman the grounds located between the Cape Ghir ( cabo of Aguer , close to Agadir) and the course Bojador but the first forwarding Castilian on the continent goes back only to 1476. They set up a fort named Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña opposite the Canaries. The localization of the fort is not known with precision, it can act of Wadi Chebica, Puerto Cansdao or Sidi Ifni. The fort is quickly besieged by 10 000 infantrymen and 2 000 with 3 000 riders, the governor of the small Canaries Diego de Herrera sends only 700 men in reinforcement and the fort is abandoned. The Castilians are limited then to raids ; thus, about 1480, they tackle the area of Taghaost (Legsabi) and bring back 158 slaves. The Découverte of America by Christophe Colomb in 1492 quickly diverts the attention of the Spaniards towards this new continent.

The Castilians return in 1496 with 34 soldiers. February 13rd, 1499, the Has Atta , a Berber confederation which controlled the area of Messa, the valley of the Draâ and Icht (roughly the area Under-Massed-Draa current), receives a delegation in their capital of Taghaost, is subjected to the Spanish crown and sends ambassadors to the court. The trade grows with Spain, and this one sends also its exiled first “to the Barbaresque S”.

However, peace with Has Atta does not apply to the other tribes as the Massa and other forts are built, in Taghazout, San Miguel on the Oued Assaka and with the course Bojador. The fort of San Miguel, built whereas an army of hostile nomads piles up, falls to the first attack and the three-quarters of the Spanish defenders are killed. In 1502, the Spaniards try to build extremely new with the Cape Ghir, in the zone reserved for Portugal by the Traité of Tordesillas. Before its completion, they are constrained to give up it on order of the king. In 1505, with the agreement of Massed, the Portuguese build their characteristic extremely, Santa Cruz C Cabo de Aguer , with Agadir (with a few kilometers of the course). In 1508, in order to lute against the barbaresque pirates (according to the Spanish version), the Castilians occupy the island of Peñón de Vélez of Gomera in the Mediterranean, again violating the Traité of Tordesillas. In repair, at the time of the Traité Capitulation of Curved (September 18th, 1509), they give up their zone of influence between Massed and the course Bojador with the Portuguese, preserving only Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña .

Victoire of the Morrocans

The tribes of the valley of Draâ organized around several brotherhoods religious and exasperated by the offensives of Europeans, decide to take again their territory by the force. In 1511, they attack strong Portuguese of Agadir, without success. In 1516, they subjugate to them Massa and bou Aita Has them and take Taghaost. In 1517, they take and shave Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña but the Spaniards rebuild the fort later a few days. In 1524, a new attack hunting définitivement ; it is about the last Spanish incursion in the Western Sahara before 1884. In 1541, strong Portuguese of Santa Cruz C Cabo de Aguer is destroyed in his turn. In 1554, they end up driving out the Wattassides capacity and found the dynasty of the Saadiens.

Arguin (1541-1728)

Europeans largely avoid Morocco and the Western Sahara thereafter and concentrates on more favourable coasts, starting from Senegal. After the annexation of Portugal by Spain, Holland in war with this one seizes the fort of Arguin in 1638 and controls the island until 1678 (the English occupy it some time in 1665). France seizes the island then but gives up it quickly. In 1685, Frederic Guillaume Ier de Brandebourg conquers the place. Its successors yield these counters to the Dutchmen in 1717. The French and the Dutchmen dispute the island until 1728 when it passes under the control of local tribal chiefs.

Moroccan domination (1541-1884)

Saadiens

With the advent of the Moroccan dynasty of the Saadiens, the ascending Morrocan becomes effective on the the Sahara Occidental. In the south, they advance until Tombouctou and with the Senegal. In 1591, with the Battle of Tondibi, the troops of Ahmed Al-Mansur Saadi, ordered by Djouder, eunuque converted Spanish, gain a decisive victory over the Empire Songhaï to which the Touareg (Berber of the center of the desert, non-arabized descendants of Sanhadja) paid tribute hitherto. The apogee Morrocan woman does not last pas : after the death of Al-Mansur in 1603, its sons tear Maroc ; the country disintegrates in a multitude of strongholds while Europeans create for themselves new enclaves in north. Towards 1632, Tombouctou and Gao declare their independence and the nomads take again the control of the desert.

In 1644, Sanhadja revolt against Hassaniya of the desert, from which descend also Saadiens, and start the Guerre of Charr Boubba. Carried out by an emir lemtuna, Nasr AD-DIN, they are beaten in the Trarza, in the south-west of Mauritania. In 1674, the area is again under Arab control.

Alaouites

Alaouite Moulay Ismail carries out then several forwardings in the desert in order to take again the control of the caravan roads and consolidates Moroccan sovereignty. It names the governors of Taghaza (where are the salt mines), Touat, Shinqit and Semara. In 1724, it sends its black troops, the Abid Al-Bukhari, to help the emir of Trarza to attack the French station of Saint-Joseph on the Senegal. This revival of Moroccan activity in the desert forms the historical base with the claim of Morocco on the territory of the Western Sahara.

After the death of Moulay Ismail in 1727, Moroccan control becomes again more dubious. Thus, on May 28th, 1767, the sultan Mohammed III of Morocco sign the treaty of Marrakech with Charles III of Spain in which he recognizes that S. Mr. Impériale reserves himself to deliberate on the counter that S. Mr. Catholique wants to found in the south of the Noun river, because it cannot take the responsability for the accidents and misfortunes, its domination not extending until there… De Santa Cruz towards North, S. Mr. Impériale grants to the Canarians and to the Spaniards fishing without authorizing no other nation there. The Arabic version of the treaty does not imply a renunciation of so clear sovereignty.

At the time of the treaty of Meknès of 1799, signed him as with Spain, Morocco indicates as the Oued Noun itself (in the past Assaka) is not under its sovereignty. However, towards the end of the century, the nomination of the emir of the Trarza confederation is allocated to the sultan of Morocco. Following the example treaty of Marrakech the Arab version of the treaty of Meknes does not imply a renunciation of so clear sovereignty.

Return of Spain (1859)

In 1859, Spain starts the Guerre of Africa against Morocco, and imposes its conditions in 1860 in the Traité of Tétouan. It obtains an enclave around the place where was the fort of Santa Cruz de Mar Pequeña was but cannot indicate with precision its localization. In 1878, the forwarding of the Blasco de Garay finds ruins with the mouth of the Oued Noun and obtains the permission of the local leaders to build a fishing port there. The sultan Moulay Hassan then proposes to install the port with Ifni, out of the zone subcontracted, but the hostility of the local populations prevents the Spaniards from taking possession of the territory. He will manage to be essential only in 1934.

Donald MacKenzie

At the end of the 19th century, south of Morocco east always bilad Al-siba , unsubdued zone with the royal capacity. In 1879, the Scot Donald MacKenzie obtains the agreement of a chief of Under, Mahammad Bayruk, to establish a counter close to Cape Juby as well as a band of three kilometers out of twelve. Port Victoria , managed by the North-West Africa Company of MacKenzie, hopes to collect part of the trade caravaneer.

The sultan Moulay Hassan of Morocco, fearing to lose this trade with the Sahara and to see MacKenzie arming the tribes with the south, offers money to this one to leave but MacKenzie refuses.

In 1880, the sultan sends a forwarding to put at bag the counter but it causes only minor damage. MacKenzie then seeks to extend its company and contacts the emir of Adrar Mauritanian. The following forwarding of Morocco takes place in 1882 in order to subject the tribes of Under and to dislodge MacKenzie. It shows a failure and until 6 000 of the 20 000 soldiers would have died of thirst.

In 1884, the prospect to see MacKenzie establishing a new counter in Río de Oro decides the Spaniards to take the initiative and to unload themselves. They also try to prevent it from using its warehouses in the Canaries but the British pressure dissuades some.

In 1888, Morocco makes assassinate the manager of the counter of Cape Juby ; under British pressure, it is constrained to pay 5 000 pounds in compensation. Sporadic combat take place between the Izarguien, combined of MacKenzie, and the Moroccan troops. The French worry in their turn that weapons intended for their enemies are imported via Cape Juby.

In 1893, Morocco organizes a new forwarding in the Tafilalet (where old the Sijilmassa was). Fifteen to thirty thousand soldiers go from Fès to Marrakech via the oases of Tafilalet. They receive there testimonys of tender (and tax arrears) of the local leaders, and make it possible to reaffirm the authority of the sultan on the area.

The treaty anglo-Morrocan of 1895 and borders of Morocco

Little before 1895, the British government tries to obtain independence swears area of the Cape Juby, in order to avoid a new conflict with the sultan, but does not manage an agreement. It then decides to sell the company to the sultan for 50 000 pounds, theoretically in order to transform the enclave into Free port. The treaty anglo-Morrocan of March 13rd, 1895 stipulates que : … No Power will be able to emit claims on the territories going of the Draâ Wadi in the Cape Bojador and called Tarfaya as it is known as higher and inside because these territories belong to Morocco.

The text of the treaty belongs to the parts brought by Morocco to the the International Court of Justice in 1975 to support its claim of sovereignty on these territories. However, the the International Court of Justice stipulates that the British diplomatic correspondence of the time states on several occasions that the area of the Cape Juby does not form part of Morocco which for the British stops in Draâ. Thus, the treaty represents an agreement on behalf of Great Britain not to dispute the future claims of the sultan in the south and not a recognition of its existing sovereignty on these territories.

Some writings suggest a foreign recognition of the sovereignty of Morocco on Río de Oro, as a letter of the ambassador from France to Tangier dated November 10th, 1898 includes the passage : The Spanish press carries out great noise around recently received news of Rio de Oro and according to which a considerable number of Morrocans - four or five thousand would approach with an aggressive attitude of the aforesaid the factorie. However, the Franco-Spanish convention of 1904 indicates that the government of the French Republic recognizes that Spain has as from this day any liberty of action taking into consideration territory ranging between 26 degrees and 27 degrees 40 minutes of northern latitude and the 11th western meridian line of Paris, which are apart from the limits of Morocco. More generally, no official text of the time attests a recognition of Moroccan sovereignty on the Western Sahara at the time of Spanish colonization.

In 1910, Cape Juby is with the hands of Izraguien which trade then with the Canaries.

The Spanish Sahara (1884-1975)

Since the 18th century, Spanish fishermen of the Canaries come close to the coasts to the Western Sahara, where the fish abound. At the end of the 19th century, several companies Africanists are formed in order to explore and to exploit this territory still largely unknown. In addition, the projection of the British and the French in the area pushes the Spaniards with being the first to assert it.

Establishment of protectorate

In 1881, the Sociedad Pesquerías Canario-Africanas builds an unloading dock on the Pointe Durnford, with the site of Villa Cisneros. In January 1884, Emilio Bonelli there Hernando of the Sociedad Española de Africanistas there Colonistas sign a treaty with sahraouis chiefs who yield the peninsula of Río de Oro to Spain but this one does not take possession of it.

November 28th, Emilio Bonelli signs another treaty with three representatives of Oulad bou Sbaa (Sba) which authorizes the establishment of comptoirs : Villa Cisneros (in Río de Oro, current Dakhla), Puerto Badía (in Angra da Cintra) and Medina Gatell (with Guera, current Lagouira).

The December 26th 1884, Spain proclaims a protectorate named Río de Oro on the coast going from the course Bojador to the course Blanc ( Bahia del Oeste ), openly at the request of the local population. Protectorate also makes it possible to close the door with Donald MacKenzie who sought to establish new counters on this coast. The Conférence of Berlin ratifies the Spanish claim the next month. Villa Cisneros is the administrative chief town and Bonelli made there build a fort with workmen of the Canaries.

April 6th, 1887, Spanish protectorate is extended to the Seguia will el-Hamra in north as with 240 kilometers inside the grounds where the emirate of Adrar starts. It is then placed under the authority of the governor-general of the Canaries who names a deputy governor.

In March 1887, Villa Cisneros is attacked and plundered by the Oulad Delim then again in March 1892 and in November 1894. March 2nd, 1895, the Spaniards sign an agreement with the sheik Ould Laroussi of Oulad Delim. However, in March 1898, a band of Oulad Delim attacks Villa Cisneros again, kills several employees of the hispano-African commercial Company ( Compañia Mercantil Hispano-Africana ) and plunders stocks while the Spaniards flee in boat to the Canaries.

June 27th, 1900, France and Spain sign the treaty of Paris which defines the border between Río de Oro (Spanish) and Mauritania (French). October 4th, 1904, the convention of Paris fixes the borders of Saguia will el-Hamra and Cape Juby ( Spanish Morocco of the South ). November 27th, 1912, after the establishment of French protectorate on Morocco, the convention of Madrid confirms these borders and fixes those of the enclave of Ifni where the Spaniards still did not manage to assert themselves.

My El Ainin

The Spaniards do not venture masses some inside the grounds and thus avoid the confrontation with the nomads. They are the French, much more aggressive, who advance in Mauritania after having colonized Algeria and Tunisia and which cause the rising of part of the nomads.

About 1895, the religious leader Sahraoui My El Ainin builds a ribat with Smara, until there simple point of water and crossroads caravaneer, from where it launches a call to the holy war against the colonizers. Armed and financed by the sultan with Morocco against the recognition of the sovereignty of this one on the Western Sahara and Mauritania, My El Ainin seizes the counter of Donald MacKenzie in Cape Juby the same year. About 1905, it sends one of its sons in Adrar Mauritanian in order to carry out to it resistance against the French and it is perhaps at the origin of the assassination with Tidjikdja of Xavier Coppolani, the French police chief of Mauritania (May 12th, 1905). The death of Coppolani disorganizes the French projection but does not stop it. In 1907, Henri Gouraud, which has just subjected a rebellion to the French Sudan (Mali), is named police chief and takes again the offensive. My El Ainin goes to Morocco to obtain weapons and then chooses to treat with Abd Al-Hafid, opposed to the French and to brother of the Moulay Abd Al-Aziz, itself collaborator. The confrontations in 1908-1909 turn however to the advantage of Gouraud, My El Ainin is constrained of quiter Smara (always unfinished) and settles with Tiznit where he proclaims Mahdi. June 23rd, 1910, the Moinier general beats an army of 6 000 Morrocans and unsubmissive person of Adrar with Tadla what puts a term at the ambitions of My El Ainin. He dies on October 23rd, 1910 with Tiznit.

In May 1911, Abd Al-Hafid reverses Abd Al-Aziz. It is found besieged by Berber tribes with Fès and is constrained to ask the French to help it what leads to the establishment of protectorate in 1912.

Victoire of the French

Ahmed el-Hiba, one of wire of My El Hainin, proclaims Mahdi and sultan with Tiznit in 1912. It extends its capacity to the Western Sahara while his/her brothers seize Agadir and Taroudant ; in August, the “Blue Sultan” makes a triumphal entry with Marrakech with the head of 10 000 men but it is beaten with Sidi Othmane. In 1913, a French column leaves Mauritania, arrives at Smara and destroys the city partially. In reprisals, wandering troops carried out by Agdaf, another of wire of My El Ainin, kill forty French in the south.

During the First World War, the Germans and the Turks tries to arm the nomads against the French. An Underwater German book of the weapons in 1916 but the crew is captured shortly after in Cape Juby by the Spaniards. In 1916, profiting from the neutrality of El Hiba and the French in his connection, colonel Francisco Bens drives out Sahraouis of Cape Juby which becomes Villa Bens. El Hiba is pushed back in the Anti-Atlas where he dies in 1918 ; his/her brother Merebbi Rebbu takes the head of resistance. The French subject Under then Rif ; about 1929 resistance is confined to the coastal desert of Saguia will el-Hamra.

In 1932, the relative neutrality of Spain in the guerilla between French and Sahraouis end when a detachment of Méhariste S Oulad Delim deserted with its weapons.

In 1934, the French beat the Reguibat and seize Tindouf, carrying out the junction with the troops of Adrar and encircling the resistant last sahraouis. The Spaniards then complete the takeover of their territory via auxiliaries recruited among the nomads ( Tercio Africanos ) by occupying the localities of the interior of which Smara like Ifni.

Spanish domination

The lifestyle of Sahraouis changes little under the administration espagnole : they remain wandering pastors with their own traditions, of which usual assemblies (djemaa), and a clean justice (Moslem Droit and orf usual). The Spanish presence itself is limited to some cities where the trade with the nomads is done.

The town of El Aaiún (Laâyoune) is founded in 1940 after the discovery of an important ground water.

During the Second world war, the Spaniards undertake the first scientific exploration campaign of the Western Sahara, the Estudios Saharianos , and improve the economic infrastructure and social of the territory.

In 1947, Spain founds the Spanish Western Africa ( África Occidental Española ) which includes/understands Ifni, the band of Tarfaya, the Seguia will el-Hamra and the Río de Oro.

As from the years 1950, several drynesses push part of the wandering population with sédentariser in the urban areas what brings them in contact with the Spaniards and causes new tensions related to the colonial statute.

Beginning of the decolonization

Morocco gains its independence in 1956. Under the impulse of nationalists like Allal Al-Resident of Fez and its Left Istiqlal, he then undertakes to reconstitute his territorial integrity with the objective of “Large Morocco” gathering all the grounds which belonged historically during a time or another to the kingdom of Morocco. Supported by the whole of the Member States of the Arab League he thus asserts all the territories still controlled by the Spaniards and part of the territories controlled by the French (a portion of the Sahara around Tindouf and Bechar as well as the Mauritania until Saint-Louis of Senegal but not the Mali, that Al-Resident of Fez asserts without support). He is opposed to the independence of Mauritania in 1960 then with his admission with UNO the following year and recognizes it only in 1969, Mauritania will be member in the Arab League only after its recognition by Morocco. After the War of sands of 1963, it also gives up Tindouf. The Spanish Sahara becomes the Moroccan principal demand then.

In 1957, Moktar Ould Daddah, the future founder of Mauritania, déclare : In a word we claim ourselves this same civilization of desert of which we are so precisely proud. I thus invite our brothers of the Spanish Sahara to think of this large economic and spiritual Mauritania. , and the idea of Large Mauritania launches thus.

The discovery of immense layers of Phosphate to Boukraa by Manuel Combined Medina as from 1947 and especially in the years 1960 suddenly makes the Sahara Western economically viable (the first exports begin only in May 1973). It then attracts the covetousness of its voisins : Morocco, in addition to the idea of “Large Morocco”, hopes to control the potential main competitor of its own phosphate deposits, the Mauritania wishes to find natural resources additional and the Algérie wants to counter Morocco and to secure an direct access with the Atlantic Ocean. On its side, pro-Franco Spain does not have any more any inclination to decolonize this ground become rich. Lastly, Sahraouis themselves, which never made of nation, discover that the desert contains much more than the pasture and water for their herds and conceive a nationalism of all parts.

The war of Ifni

In 1956, Morocco creates a Armée with release of Morocco of the south, composed mainly of tribes sahraouies in order to fight against the Spanish occupation with the enclave of Sidi Ifni and in the Sahara Occidental. The Guerre of Ifni begins in October 1957. After several successes, the army of release is pushed back then destroyed in February 1958 by a named joint action Franco-Spanish “operation hurricane” (left Spanish) and “operation flue brush” (left French).

Spanish reforms

The the Spanish Sahara is created on January 12th, 1958 by gathering the territories of Río de Oro and Saguia will el-Hamra. The same year, Spain yields the band of Tarfaya to Morocco and dissolves Western Africa espagnole ; Saguia will el-Hamra and Río de Oro automatically become Spanish provinces, electing their representatives with the the Cortes Generales (which do not have practically any capacity under Franco), while Ifni obtains a municipal council. April 19th, 1961, El Aaiún becomes the capital of the Spanish Sahara. In 1962, Spain launches a new economic modernization plan. The first municipal elections take place in 1963 then every two years. In 1967, Spain sets up a territorial assembly, the Jemaa (or Yemaa ), which has it either practically no capacity.

Right to self-determination

As of 1963, the Spanish Sahara was registered at the request of Morocco on the list of the non-self-governing territories. Morocco is then convinced that Sahraouis wish massively to join the kingdom, and that a poll of self-determination would be only one simple formality.

December 17th, 1965, in its resolution 2072, the General meeting of the United Nations invites the Spain to immediately take the necessary measures for the release of the colonial domination of the territories of Ifni and the Spanish Sahara and to engage for this purpose of the negotiations on the problems relating to the sovereignty which these two territories pose. Spain and Portugal vote against the resolution while France, the South Africa, the the United Kingdom and the the United States abstain from.

Consequently, this question is registered each year with the day order of the fourth commission of decolonization and is the subject of seven additional resolutions of the General meeting between 1966 and 1973, enjoignant the Spain to be implemented of this right to the Autodétermination. Since then, UNO always confirmed its position in favor of the self-determination of the population sahraouie.

Recommendations of the same type emanate since years of the Council of the Safety of the United Nations, OAU, movement of not aligned, the European Parliament, inviting all the parts, including Algeria, to fully cooperate with the United Nations in order to progress towards a consensual political solution of their regional disagreement.

In 1969, Spain restores the area of Ifni in Morocco.

Foundation of the independence movements

For the crushing of risings of 1957-1958, it is necessary to wait several years before the reconstitution of new initially pacifist movements then more inclined to obtain independence by the force.

The first independence movement, the Frente de Liberacíon LED the Sahara bajo Dominacíon Española , is founded in 1966 but he does not undertake any action.

In 1967, Mohammed Bassiri founds the Harakat Tahrir Saqia Al-Hamra wa Wadi Al-Dhahab ( liberation movement of the Irrigation channel will el-Hamra and Oued ED-Dahab ), peaceful precursor of Polisario. June 17th, 1970, of the demonstrators led by Mohammed Bassiri bring a petition to the general governor of the Spanish Sahara to Laâyoune. Whereas the demonstration disperses, the police force tries to stop the meneurs ; the demonstrators resist, the government utilized the Tercio Africanos which shoot at crowd, making 11 dead. Hundreds of people are stopped in the following days from of which Bassiri which disappears in prison, probably assassinated or tortured with death.

In 1971, Edouardo Moha founds the Resistance movement of the blue men (Morehob) which asserts immediate independence and refuses any referendum. Very active during several months, the movement “is gradually recovered” by Morocco.

The same year, El-Ouali Moustapha Sayed, Sahraoui then studying in right, and other students with Rabat start to consider the possibility of releasing the Western Sahara by the force by refusing any Moroccan interference. In 1973, the Moroccan authorities intervene to dissolve its group and Sayed flees in the desert. May 10th, 1973, the Frente Popular de Liberación de Saguía el Hamra there Río de Oro or Front Polisario is founded with Ain Bentili (Mauritania) in order to force Spain by the force to give up colonization but also in opposition to fastening with Morocco and Mauritania. El-Ouali Moustapha Sayed is elected general secretary. May 20th, at the time of the raid of Khanga, Polisario seizes a military station and seizes weapons.

To counter Polisario, Hassan II encourages in 1974 the foundation of the Front of release and the unit (FLU), pro-Morrocan.

Lastly, in February 1975, the Spaniards authorize a Partido of the Union Nacional Sahraoui in order to preserve a bond with Spain but its leader, Khalihenna Ould Rachid, made allegiance with king Marocain and join quickly in Morocco. Following the example Khalihenna Ould Rachid several chioukhs Sahraouis makes allegiance in Morocco.

The opinion of the International Court of Justice

August 21st, 1974, Spain announces the behavior of a referendum of self-determination for the beginning of 1975. The king of Morocco Hassan II then states to be opposed including by the force to any referendum which could lead to the independence of the territory contesté ; September 17th, he proposes the arbitration of the the International Court of Justice. In October, at the time of the top of the OAU with Reduction, Morocco and Mauritania conclude a secret agreement orally in order to be distributed the territory. Algeria is then publicly favorable to the independent Western Sahara and non-aligned, but it seems that it guaranteed the mauritanio-Morrocan agreement.

Spain carries out a rapid census of the population of the Spanish Sahara in 1974 in order to determine the list of the participants in the poll of self-determination. The census concludes with a population from 70 with 80 000 inhabitants, but does not take into account Sahraouis taken refuge in the adjoining countries, nor the nomads. Polisario, considers the population with 250-300 to him; 000 people.

December 13rd, 1974, the General meeting of UNO adopts resolution 3292. She reaffirms the right to self-determination of the Spanish Sahara, asks the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on the statute and the legal bonds of the territory and elects a mission of visit in the territory.

The mission proceeds in May - June 1975 and visit the Western Sahara and the countries bordering. It presents his report/ratio to UNO on October 15th and concludes with one consensus crushing among alive Sahraouis on the territory in favor of independence and in opposition to integration with any adjoining country . The leaders of the mission also note a massive support of the population in favor of the Polisario Face.

October 16th, 1975, the International Court of Justice returns its avis : she recognizes that the territory of the Western Sahara was not Terra nullius before colonization by Spain and that it had legal bonds of allegiance with Morocco and the Mauritanian unit. However, it does not note any bond of territorial sovereignty. She concludes that these bonds are not likely to block the application of the principle of self-determination thanks to the free expression and authenticates will of the populations of the territory .

The Marche Verte and end of the Spanish mandate

The shortly after the opinion of the International Court of Justice, Hassan II announces the organization of a “green Marche” for which logistics is already places from there in order to to expel the infidels colonialists of the Moroccan ground and to incorporate the Western Sahara in Morocco. The call to Walk knows enormous a succès : 500 000 Morrocans tributary with Tarfaya close to the border and a system of quotas and drawing lots determine those which will be able to cross it. At the beginning of November, 350 000 civilians organized moving peaceful, holding up the Moroccan flag and Coran, cross the border in order to support the territorial claim marocaine ; they are supported by some 20 000 Moroccan soldiers while the Spaniards folded up ten kilometers in the south. The 6, the Safety advice of the United Nations approves the resolution 380 which ask Morocco to withdraw territory of the Western Sahara immediately all the participants in walk . November 9th, Hassan II orders to the walkers, who stopped in front of the minefields posed by the Spaniards, to make half-turn. The Marche Verte makes it possible Hassan II to consolidate her capacity around the Moroccan nationalist feeling, and the Moroccan determination pushes the Spaniards with the negotiation.

November 14th, 1975, whereas Franco fails, the Spanish government signs the Accords of Madrid with the Morocco and the Mauritania. The territory is divisé : northern two-thirds for Morocco, the southern third for Mauritania. Spain obtains concessions for phosphate of Bou Craa and fishing. The local population is not consulted and the Polisario Face is opposed violently to the agreements. Algeria is also excluded from the agreements, mainly because she wished to prevent Spain from continuing the exploitation of phosphate of Bou Craa, and she undertakes the diplomatic, financial support and soldier of Polisario.

December 10th, the General meeting of UNO adopts the resolution 3458, which approves the report/ratio of the mission of visit and the conclusions of the International Court of Justice, in particular the installation of a referendum on self-determination, and requests all the parts concerned to put an end to any unilateral action or other which would exceed the decisions of the General meeting relating to the territory .

The war of the Western Sahara (1975-1991)

Invasion of Morocco and Mauritania (1975-1976)

December 11th, 1975, the Moroccan troops occupy Laâyoune. December 20th, the troops Mauritanians occupy Tichla and Lagouira. January 9th, the last Spanish troops leave Laâyoune while the Moroccan troops arrive at Dakhla (Cisneros Villa). January 12th, they are joined by the troops Mauritanians and the last Spanish soldiers leave the territory.

The troops of occupation make many exactions against the civilians sahraouis : in February, the International federation of the human rights confirms the charges of repression, tortures and the assassinations of civils ; the use of Napalm against civilians as for it is confirmed by the International committee of the Red Cross in January and by a team of Swiss doctors in May. Morocco contradicts these these charges, affirms that none of these ONG was present at the Western Sahara during the engagements, and that these organizations are very known by their support for the Polisario face. The Algerian forces take part in the conflict while advancing until Amgala where a confrontation with the Moroccan army takes place. After the victory of this one, the Morrocans stop their continuation before the Algerian border and avoid the extension of the conflict. No international agency denounces the intervention of the Algerian army in the conflict. The tensions between Morocco and Algérie remain sharp until 1982, but the two countries manage to avoid other confrontations.

February 26th, 1976, Spain informs UNO of the abandonment of its mandate of administration of the territory, with the profit of Morocco and Mauritania. UNO considers Spain always at this time as administering power swears and Morocco and Mauritania like occupying powers. This distinction of international law does not authorize Morocco to exploit phosphate of Bou Craa. The following day, Polisario proclaims the Arab République sahraouie democratic (RASD) with Bir Lehlou, with the support of Algeria, and the approval of a majority of the members of the OAU, which is ready to recognize Polisario like a “liberation movement”. El-Ouali Moustapha Sayed is the first president of the RASD. March 6th, Algeria recognizes the RASD what causes the rupture of the diplomatic relations with Morocco.

Success of Polisario (1976-1980)

Polisario initially concentrates its efforts against Mauritania, the army of this one being definitely weaker than that of Morocco. It is carried out by El Ouali then Lahbib Ayoub ; it is armed by Algeria, its main ally, and is financially supported by the Libya; it uses military material Soviet. It adopts tactics of Guerilla which show their effectiveness quickly.

In January 1976, the troops of Polisario attack the Conveying belt of Phosphate between Bou Craa and Laâyoune and stops the production of phosphate during several years.

The Moroccan air force bombards several camps sahraouis what causes the exodus of thousands of Sahraouis in the refugee camps of the area of Tindouf in Algeria.

Polisario takes Amgala which had been given up by the Algerians and, according to Morocco, is devoted to “massacres” on the Moroccan troops.

El-Ouali Moustapha Sayed dies on June 9th, 1976 at the time of a raid on Nouakchott, the capital Mauritanian. In May 1977, Lahbib Ayoub attacks the mining city of Zouerate (whereas iron exports represent the three quarters of the contributions in currencies of Mauritania), where two French find death and six others are captured. October 25th, Polisario launches a new attack and captures two new French. France refuses to treat directly with Polisario, and it is Georges Marchais which leads the semi-official negotiations to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in Algiers, and obtains the release of the eight French. This action is repudiated by the president Valery Giscard d'Estaing, who decides the bombardment of three positions of Polisario in Mauritania, in December.

Between 1976-1978, Polisario manages to form columns of a hundred armored vehicles equipped with Soviet weapons. It drives out the Morrocans of Amgala and carries out raids in full Morocco up to 240 kilometers of the border.

The position of Mauritania is weakened by the presence of many nationalists sahraouis and from the thousands of soldiers sahraouis Mauritanians desert and join Polisario. In 1978,60% of the budget is devoted to the army and the country is at the edge of the Suspension of payment. July 10th, 1978, after a Coup d'etat in Mauritania and the establishment of a Military committee of national rectification (CMRN), Polisario announces a Cessez-le-feu with this country. The negotiations do not progress, a second coup d'etat gives rise to the Military committee of national hello (CMSN) and Polisario breaks the cease-fire in July 1979.

Mauritania yields in the following days and accepts the conditions of Polisario : peace treaty, withdrawal of the troops, renouncement of any claim on one the third of the Western Sahara obtained during the agreements of Madrid and recognition of Polisario like only representing of the people sahraoui. Morocco, outraged, immediately annexes the southern portion of the territory. A coup d'etat launched in 1981 against the CMSN échoue ; Mauritania suspects that it was supported by Morocco and breaks its diplomatic relations.

In January 1979, Polisario attacks the Moroccan city of Tan-Tan and the Moroccan press speaks about national catastrophe . In August, it attacks Dakhla where the Morrocans do not yield but the next month it makes 1 500 victims with Lebouiarat and seizes heavy weapons. In October, an attack on Smara is pushed back using Mirage F1 bought to the French and Polisario seizes Mahbès, on the road between Smara and Algeria.

In March 1980, Polisario inflicts a severe defeat with the Moroccan armed forces in the Djebel Ouarkziz and the growth to adopt a new strategy.

Construction of the Moroccan wall and stagnation of the conflict (1980-1987)

In 1980, Morocco undertakes the construction of the “Moroccan Mur” while starting with the area Laâyoune - Smara - Bou Craa which concentrates the essence of the economic activity. The wall consists of berms (fill) of sand and stone of approximately three meters of haut ; trenches of several meters are dug in several places below way to minimize the risk of an unfavourable incursion. All along the wall, of the units of monitoring take turns with the units of intervention, equipped with radars and protected from barbed wires.

Built in six stages until 1987, it comprises five supposed “breaches” to ensure the right of continuation for the Moroccan troops. Each wall is supposed to make safe the zone which separates it from the Atlantic. Of an overall length of approximately 2 700 kilometers, the wall of defense is supervised by more 90 000 men. A band of several hundred meters of minefields prohibits the access of them.

The wall is a decisive parade with the strategy of guerilla of Polisario and it changes the course of the conflict radically. Polisario is rejected outside the wall and is unable to carry out significant incursions inside the territory controlled by the Moroccan army. The Moroccan army profits from an excellent defensive position but the cost from the wall and force from monitoring grêve the budget from Morocco, in spite of the assistance of the Saudi Arabia and the the United States, and contributes to the degradation of the economic situation and social.

Negotiations for a cease-fire (1984-1991)

In 1982, during a discussion with the Algerian president Chadli Bendjedid, Hassan II would have declared to him in a sign of good will leave me the stamp and the flag, all the remainder is negotiable . The same year, the diplomats of Polisario, supported by the Algerian diplomacy, obtains the admission of the democratic République Arab sahraouie in the Organization of African Unity what causes the departure of Morocco in 1985. During years 1980, the RASD is recognized by 75 States, mainly African. The refugee camps of Tindouf lodge his government in exile.

In 1984, the OAU adopts the resolution AHG104 which reaffirms the right of the sahraouis to self-determination and calls with direct negotiations between Morocco and Polisario, with a cease-fire and the organization of a referendum. In August, Morocco signs the treaty of Oujda with Libya by which this one is committed not supporting Polisario more. In September, at the General meeting of UNO, Hassan II begins in favor of the referendum of self-determination. In December, the General meeting of UNO takes again the peace plan of the OAU on her account.

The General secretary of the United Nations, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, is implied directly as from 1986. Each part exposes its positions in a questionnaire : Morocco refuses direct negotiations preliminary to a mediation of UNO but accepts the principle of a referendum supervised by this one. Polisario wishes him also a referendum supervised by UNO but also a direct administration of the territory by UNO, a joint security force of UNO and OAU and the withdrawal of the Moroccan armed forces as well as Moroccan residents nonoriginating in the Western Sahara before the behavior of the referendum.

In 1987 is held a new meeting between Hassan II and Chadli Bendjedid with Akid Lofti (close to the border algéro-Morrocan woman) and the following year Morocco and Algeria take again their diplomatic relations.

In August 1988, UNO presents to Morocco and Polisario its plan of payment of the conflict. The proposals of UNO are accepted “in theory” by the two parts but are accompanied by contradictory comments addressed directly to Pérez de Cuellar and Issa Diallo. These comments are not communicated to the charged commission of the implementation of the plan.

In January 1989, a delegation of Polisario is received by Hassan II in Marrakech, without result. A little later Hassan II declares that Morocco would not yield an inch of its territory and in October that there is nothing to negotiate, because the Western Sahara is a Moroccan territory . The last significant offensive of Polisario takes place in October - November, against the Wall.

Direct armed confrontation enters the Moroccan army and the army of Polisario lasts until September 1991, date of a cease-fire organized by UNO and belonging to the plan of payment.

Cease-fire and the dead end (1991-)

With the beginning of the year 1990, starting from the joint proposals of OAU and UNO, a dynamics of peace is established. But even after the establishment of a durable cease-fire, the prospect for a referendum is always also distant.

Establishment and obstacles

The Safety advice gives his agreement to the establishment of the “Mission of the United Nations for the organization of a referendum in the Western Sahara” (MINURSO) on April 19th, 1991 (resolution 690) and the cease-fire between in force on September 6th.

The application of the resolution quickly meets obstacles of which most important is the identification of the voters being able to take part in the referendum. Polisario wishes to limit the inscription to the residents identified at the time of the census of 1974 and to their descendants what would support an pro-independence result. Morocco wishes that Sahraouis installed in Morocco as well as the Morrocans installed in the Western Sahara be able to also decide what would support an pro-integration result.

The Baker plans

The arrival of Kofi Annan to the General secretary in January 1997 makes it possible to start again the peace process. Kofi Annan names James Baker, former American Secretary of State, like personal envoy for the Western Sahara. Baker visits the area from April 23rd to 28th 1997 then manages to join together Sahraouis and Marocains in Houston from September 14th to 16th and to make them sign the agreements of Houston which envisage the behavior of the referendum in 1998. The identification of the voters takes again on December 3rd but butts again against the statute of several wandering tribes. The referendum is pushed back in December 1999. In 1999, the commission of identification rejects the majority of the individual requests for inscription of these tribes what causes the anger of Morocco. Polisario, as for him, evokes the possibility of a resumption of the hostilities if the referendum is continuously pushed back.

In 2000, James Baker proposes a foreground (today known under the name “Baker I”) which offers a broad local autonomy within the framework of the Moroccan State, whose competences would be limited to defense and the foreign affairs. This plan is accepted by Morocco, but is rejected by Polisario and Algeria (see on this subject the report/ratio of the General secretary of the United Nations dated June 20th, 2001 reference number to the information center of the United Nations: S/2001/613). Polisario however releases 201 Moroccan prisoners “on a purely humane basis”.

Baker proposes a new plan in 2003 (“Baker II”), which envisages the establishment of a Autorité of the Western Sahara for five years, then behavior of the referendum in which the Morrocans nonoriginating in the Western Sahara would take part and to which the new option of “permanent autonomy” would appear. The plan is approved unanimously by the Safety advice under the condition of his acceptance by all the parts. He is refused by Morocco because he compromises his territorial integrity. Following this refusal, Baker resigns in June 2004.

Evolution of the statute of the RASD and Morocco

The RASD gradually loses its international recognition in the years 1990, of many countries preferring to suspend or give up this one, while waiting for the result of the poll of self-determination. In 2006, forty country still recognize the RASD.

In 2002, UNO qualifies for the first time Morocco of administering power what would authorize it to exploit the natural resources of the territory but this qualification is not related to the non-self-governing list of the territories held by UNO.

Recent developments

In August 2003, the Peruvian diplomat Alvaro de Soto is named by UNO at the station of Special representative for the Western Sahara . In 2005 Kofi Annan names Peter van Walsum and Frasesco Bastagli in the capacity respectively of personal envoy and special representative in the Western Sahara.

Since May 2005, of the demonstrations and riots, called “intifada for independence” by Polisario, takes place in several cities of the Western Sahara, mainly in Laâyoune. Several foreign journalists were expelled after having interviewed demonstrators. December 14th, 2005, fourteen militants sahraouis are condemned to custodial sentences. Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch expressed sharp reserves on the conditions of these lawsuits and Amnesty International required an investigation into the charges of torture of prisoners.

Following these events, the king Mohammed VI decided in 2006 the installation of the advisory royal Conseil for the Saharan businesses (CORCAS), in order to propose to the people sahraoui a third way between the annexation and independence, that of autonomy. Morocco would then preserve national defense, the foreign affairs and the currency. Morocco is delivery favorable to the behavior of a referendum of self-determination of the local population of the the Sahara Occidental but which does not include among its options the independence of the territory.

Since June 18th, 2007 the first round of negotiations for a final payment of the question of the Sahara is held in Manhasset, in the suburbs of New York between representatives of Morocco (including the president of the CORCAS Khalihana Ould Errachid) and the Polisario Face following the invitation of the General secretary of UNO and in accordance with the resolution 1754 of the Safety advice.

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