History of phycology

The Phycologie is the study of the Algue S and the Histoire, that of the last human activities. The interest of the Man for the plants as a food goes back to the origins of the species Homo sapiens and one can go up the wire of knowledge concerning the algae on more than two thousand years. However, it has been only for three hundred years that knowledge really developed and they form from now on a science which develops quickly.

Beginnings

The study of the Botanique goes back to the Préhistoire, time to which the vegetable constituted the base of human food since mists of time. The first tests to cultivate Plante S were probably carried out a little more 10 000 years before J. - C. with the the Middle East (Morton, 1981) and the first references to the algae are to be sought in the writings of the Chinese Littérature ancient. Use of Porphyra in China date at least of the 6th century after J. - C., between 533 and 544 (Mumfard and Miura, 1988), while it is already made by it mention in the zones of the Mediterranean in the literatures Greek and Roman. The Greek word which indicated the algae was phycos whereas time of the ancient Rome the word became Fucus . Antiques references mention the use of algae as a Fumier. The first algae coralline S recognized as living beings were probably the Corallina , by Pline Old the (23-79) with after J. - C. (Irvine and Chamberlain, 1994 p.11).

The classification of the plants has sudden many upheavals since Théophraste (372-287 before J. - C.) and Aristote (384-322 before J. - C.) which gathered them in three categories: " Tree s" , " Bush s" and " Grass s" (Smith, 1955 p.1).

The development of the study of phycology followed a comparable and parallel profile with other fields of biology but at different intervals. The Printing works (invented at the 15th century) and education have made it possible to people to read and the knowledge to diffuse itself. The interest for the algae increased quickly.

The exploration of the world and the projection of knowledge

The contributions written on the algae of South Africa go up with the explorers Portuguese, however, it is not clear of knowing to which species they refer (Huisman, 2000 p.7).

The 17th century

At the 17th century, there was a large alarm clock of the scientific interest everywhere in Europe and, after the invention of printing works, the books of botany were published. Among them, the work of John Ray (1627-1705) which wrote in 1660: Catalogus Plantarum circa Cantabrigiam. , which initiated a new era in the study of botany (Smith, 1975 p. 4). Ray " as well the theory influenced as the practice of botany more deeply than any other person in second half of the 17th century " (Morton, 1981).

The 18th century

Before Carl von Linné (1707-1778) all the animals and the plants had names, but it took to him to arrange them and group the Plantes this Ground in a certain form of order. Carolus Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) was a Swedish botanist, wire of Pasteur of the Church Lutheran, a doctor and a Zoologiste. It posed the bases of the modern Systématique biological and the nomenclature in its Species Plantarum (1753). It adopted and popularized a system binominal (or binary) (Morton, 1981) One of her, the class Cryptogamia , included/understood all the plants provided with reproductive bodies hidden . It divided the class Cryptogamia into four orders: Filices (Fern S), Musci (foam S), Algae (Algue S) - which included the Lichen S and the Hépatique S - and Fungi (Champignon S) (Smith, 1955 p. 1). concludes that they were probably made of vegetable material.

The first scientific description of an alga of South Africa accepted in the majority of the nomenclaturaux fields is that maximum Ecklonia , published in 1757 pennies name Fucus maximus (Stegenga et al. , 1997).

The investigation of the algae of North America in the Pacifique began with forwarding from 1791-95 from the captain George Vancouver (Papenfuss, 1976 p.21).

Archibald Menzies (1754-1842) was the botanist appointed of the forwarding carried out by the captain George Vancouver (1757-1798) on board the Discovery then Chatham between 1791 and 1795 on the peaceful coasts of the North America and to the south-west of Australia. The algae collected by Menzies were transmitted to Dawson Turner (1775-1858) which described them and illustrated them in a work in four volumes published between 1808 and 1819. However, Turner referred only to the Taxon comparable to Fucus ; either Menzies it had collected only very few samples, or it had transmitted only one negligible part of it to Turner. Three of the species described by Turner became the new prototypes thereafter kind S (Papenfuss, 1976)

The first to have collected marine algas in water of the Greenland seems to be Jens Lorenz Moestue Vahl (1796-1854) which lived in Greenland of 1828 to 1836. The species of Vahl coming from the east of Greenland were not indexed before 1893 when Janus Lauritz Andreas Kolderup Rosenvinge (1858-1939) incorporated them, as well as the species collected by Sylow, in its work of 1893 (Lund, 1959). F.R. Kjellman indexes only 12 species of the east of Greenland, 4 of them being prone to guarantee, these data are based on the list of Zeller (Lund, 1959).

Knowledge off North American Pacific algae begins with the 1791 - 95 forwarding off Captain George Vancouver (Papenfuss, 1976 p.21).

Archibald Menzies (1754 - 1842) was the appointed botanist one the forwarding led by Captain George Vancouver in the ships Discovery and Chatham off 1791 - 1795 to the Pacific coast off North America and Australia south-western. The algae collected by Menzies were passed to Dawson Turner (1775 - 1858) who described and illustrated them in has furnace-volumed work published in 1808 - 1819. However Turner only referred to the Taxed referable to Fucus ; either Menzies collected very few gold He gave only has few to Turner. Three off thesis species described by Turner later became the standard off new Generated (Papenfuss, 1976)

The first collector off marinades algae in Greenland toilets seems to cuts been J.M.Vahl who lived in Greenland from 1828 to 1836. Vahl' S East Greenland species were not recorded until 1893 when Rosenvinge included them in his work off 1893 together with the species collected by Sylow (Lund, 1959). F.R.Kjellman records only 12 species from East Greenland 4 off which are doubtful, thesis records are based one Zeller' S list (Lund, 1959).

Jean Vincent Felix Lamouroux (1779-1825) was the very first one, in 1813, to separate the algae in groups on the basis from their color (Dixon and Irvine, 1977 p.59). At that time, the coral-red algae were always regarded as animals. It is Rodolfo Amando Philippi (1808-1904) which in 1837 published the article in which he recognizes finally that the coral-red algae do not belong to the animal kingdom. He proposed the generic names Lithophyllum and Lithothamnion (Irvine and Chamberlain, 1994 p.11).

In this first half of the 19th century, the fresh water algae are commonly treated separately marine algas and it can even seem incorrect to incorporate them in phycology. The British Confervae (1809) of Lewis Weston Dillwyn (1778-1855) was one of the oldest attempts to gather all that was known then fresh water algae of the British Isles .

Early 19th Century

Carl Adolph Agardh (1785-1859) was one off the most prominent algologists off all time, He was born in Sweden one 23 January 1785 and died one 28th January 1859. He was Professor off Botany At the University off Lund and later Bishop off Karlstad Diocese (Papenfuss, 1976).

Jean Vincent Felix Lamouroux (1779-1825) was the first, in 1813, to separate the algae into groups one the basis off color (Dixon and Irvine, 1977 p.59). At this time all coral-red algae were considered Animals, it was Rodolfo Amando Philippi (1808-1904) who in 1837 published his paper in which He finally recognized that coral-red algae were not animals and He proposed the generic names Lithophyllum and Lithothamnion (Irvine and Chamberlain, 1994 p.11).

Marine Freshwater algae are commonly treated separately from algae and may Be considered not correctly placed in phycology. Lewis Weston Dillwyn (1778-1855) " British Confervae" (1809) was one off the earliest attempts to bring together all that was then known one the British Freshwater algae. -->

W.H. Harvey

William Henry Harvey (1811-1866) was professor of botany and person in charge of the Herbier of the Trinity College of Dublin, but also one of the algologists more for his time (Papenfuss, 1976 p. 26). , with the University of St Andrews in Scotland (STA) and with the National Herbarium off Victoria (MEL) of Melbourne in Australia (May, 1977). Many the collectors of this period were sent and exchanged freely specimens the ones the others. For this reason, the books of Harvey indicate a remarkable knowledge of the distribution of the algae, from where which they come in the world. Its book Phycologia Britannica list of the species indexed and collected at various places of the British Isles. For example, it just like notes that William Thompson (1805-1852), William McCalla (v. 1814-1849), John Templeton (1766-1825) and David Landsborough (1779-1854) collected samples, him, starting from sites distinct from Ireland. The collections of these botanists, and much of others, are presented separately, collection by collection, with the Ulster Museum (BEAUTIFUL).

Sir William Jackson Hooker (1785-1865) was, its life during, the friend of Harvey (Papenfuss, 1976 p. 26). It was named professor of botany at the University of Glasgow in 1820 and became director with Kew between 1841 and 1865. Hooker was an evolutionist of the first hour and gave its support very early, in a group certainly minority but made up of other eminent scientists of the time like Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895), with Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and his Théorie of the evolution. Hooker could perceive the talent of Harvey, lent its own books to him, encouraged it and invited it to write the section devoted to the algae of its works British Flora and The Botany off Captain Beechey' S Voyage (the Botany of the Voyage of the Beechey Captain) (Papenfuss, 1976).

W.H. Harvey

Willian Henry Harvey (1811-1866) was Keeper off the Herbarium and Professor in Botany At Trinity College, Dublin, and was one off the most distinguished algologists off his time (Papenfuss, 1976 p.26). ; University off St Andrews (STA) and National Herbarium off Victoria (MEL), Melbourne, Australia (May, 1977). Many off the collectors off this period feels, and exchanged, specimens freely one to another, ace has result Harvey' S books show has remarkable knowledge off the distribution off algae elsewhere in the world. His Phycologia Britannica lists species recorded and collected from various shares off the British Isles. For example He notes William Thompson (1805 - 1852), W. McCalla (c.1814 - 1849), John Templeton (1766 - 1825) and D. Landsborough (1779 - 1854) who collected, ace He did, from distinct sites in Ireland. The collections off thesis botanists, and many others, are represented separately by collections in the Ulster Museum (BEAUTIFUL).

Sir William Jackson Hooker (1785 - 1865) was off has life-length friend Harvey (Papenfuss, 1976 p.26), He was appointed Professor off Botany At Glasgow University in 1820 and became Director in Kew 1841 - 1865. Hooker recognized the talent in slow Harvey and him books, encouraged and invited him to Write the section one algae in his British Flora. ace well ace the section one algae for The Botany off Captain Beechey' S Travels (Papenfuss, 1976). -->

Second half of the 19th century

At this period, an important work was carried out by many scientists and the abundance of new specimens became considerable. It is possible to find the specimens of Harvey in several herbaria, just as those of other phycologists whose names appear in the publications of time.

In same times, Friedrich Traugott Kützing (1807-1893) described in Germany more new kinds than any other before or after him (Chapman, 1968 p.13). Its publications are spread out of 1841 to 1869 and add substance to knowledge on the algae of cool water of the seas of the Arctique. Some of these specimens are stored in the herbarium of Ulster Museum (BEAUTIFUL) in Northern Ireland and are catalogued under the references: F1171; F10281 - F10318. In 1883, Frans Reinhold Kjellman (1846-1907), professor of botany to the University of Uppsala, published the Algae of the sea Arctique - The Algae off the Arctic Sea . It divided the " sea Arctique" in various areas which surround the North pole (Kjellman, 1883). Following research attempts to increase the knowledge of the marine algas of the whole world, among which quote Charles Lewis Anderson (1827-1919) which collaborated with William Gilson Farlow (1844-1919) and the professor Daniel Cady Eaton (1834-1895) to produce the first exsiccatae algae of North America (Papenfuss, 1976). and some are in the herbarium of Ulster Museum (BEAUTIFUL).

George Clifton (1823-1913), an Australian phycologist mentioned in the memories of Harvey like the Super-intendant of the police force of water of Perth in Australian south-west, sent samples of algae to Harvey (Blackler, H.1977). In these years there were many researchers on the ground: W.G. Farlow, mentioned above, was named professor of cryptogamic botany to the Université Harvard (the USA) in 1879 and published, inter alia work, the Marine algas of England News and the Adjacent Coasts - Navy algae off New England and Adjacent Coasts. In 1876, John Erhard Areschoug (1811-1887), a Swedish professor of botany to the University of Uppsala, wrote a report/ratio on brown algas collected in California by Gustavus A. Eisen (Papenfuss. 1976). and it appears only one small portion of its collection in the herbarium of Ulster Museum: (Collection No 42) named: Algae Norvegicae (referred with the catalog (BEAUTIFUL): F10319-F10334).

It was at the 19th century that the true nature of the lichens, organizations consisted the specific association of an alga and a mushroom, was shown by Simon Schwendener (1829-1919) in 1867. This moved away a source from confusion in morphology and classification (Morton, 1981 p.432). His publications span the period 1841 to 1869 and added materially to knowledge off algae off cold toilets off the Arctic seas. Summon off his specimend are stored in the Ulster Museum Herbarium (BEAUTIFUL) catalogued: F1171; F10281 - F10318. In 1883 Frans Reinhold Kjellman, Professor off Botany At Uppsala University, published The Algae off the Arctic Sea . He divided the " Arctic Sea" into different areas which surround the North Pole (Kjellman, 1883). Marine Further research work one the algae off the world included: Charles Lewis Anderson (1827 - 1910) who collaborated with William Gilson Farlow and with Professor Daniel Cady Eaton to produce one the first exsiccatae off North American Algae (Papenfuss, 1976). and nap are in the herbarium off the Ulster Museum (BEAUTIFUL). George Clifton (1823 - 1913) year Australian phycologist is mentioned in Harvey 'S Memoirs, ace the Superintendent off the Water Organizes in Perth, West Australia feels algal specimens to Harvey (Blackler, H.1977). In thesis years there were many workers in this field: W.G. Farlow, mentioned above, who was appointed in 1879 Professor off Cryptogamic Botany At University off Harvard (the U.S.A.) in 1879 and published, among other works, the Navy algae off New England and Adjacent Coasts. ; in 1876 John Erhard Areschoug, has Swedish Professor off Botany At Upsalla University, reported one summons Brown algae collected in California by Gustavus A. Eisen (Papenfuss. 1976). and there has small collection off his in the Ulster Museum Herbarium: (Collection No 42) entitled: Algae Norvegicae (Ulster Museum Herbarium catalogued (BEAUTIFUL): F10319 - F10334).

It was in the 19th natural Century that the true off lichens, ace organisms consisting off year alga and has fungus in specific association, was demonstrated by Schwendener in 1867. This removed has source off confusion in morphology and classification (Morton, 1981 p.432). Later, between 1920 and 1936, it published its research on the algae of the the Canaries. ,

In 1935 and 1945 Felix Eugen Fritsch (1879-1954) published its treaty in two volumes: the Structure and Reproduction of the Algae - The Structure and Reproduction off the Algae . These two volumes detail practically all that was then known in connection with the morphology and of the reproduction of the algae. However, the knowledge concerning the algae progressed so much since then it would be impossible to update them even if mention is always made of these works. The other notable contributions published in years 1950 include/understand: Botanical Cryptogamique - Cryptogamic Botany. whose first treating volume of the algae goes back to 1955, written by Gilbert Morgan Smith (1885-1959) and the following year Die Gattungen der Rhodophyceen. by Johan Harald Kylin (1879-1949), published on a purely posthumous basis. Other phycologists massively contributed to increase the knowledge on the algae like Elmer Yale Dawson (1918-1966), which published more than 60 articles on the algae of the northern Pacific (Papenfuss, 1976). Later between 1920 and 1936 He published his research one the algae off the Canary Islands.

In 1935 and 1945 Felix Eugen Fritsch (1879 - 1954) published in two volumes his treatise: The Structure and Reproduction off the Algae . Thesis two volumes detail virtually all that was then known butt the morphology and reproduction off the algae. Impossible However knowledge off algae has so greatly increased since then it would Be for thesis to Be to bring to Be brought up-to-date, nevertheless refers is often made to them. Other valuable works published in the 1950s include Cryptogamic Botany. written by Gilbert Morgan Smith (1885 - 1959), the algal volume (no.1) was published in 1955. In the following year (1956), Die Gattungen der Rhodophyceen. by Herald Johann Kylin (1879 - 1949) was published posthumously. Other phycologists who contributed massively to the knowledge off algae include: Elmer Yale Dawson (1918 - 1966) who published over 60 papers one the algae off the North American Pacific seas (Papenfuss, 1976). In this He detailed records off algae found one the shores off the British Isles with the localities. This was the start off has new approach, the bringing together off records, detailed key, checklists and mapping designs.

The process accelerated in the 20th century. Lilly Newton (born Batten) (1893 - 1981) Professor in Botany At the University College off Wales, Aberystwyth and Professor Emeritus in 1931 wrote: has Handbook off the British Seaweeds. This was the first, and for quite has time, the only book for identification off seaweeds in the British Isles using has botanical key. In 1962 Eifion Jones published: has key to the generated the British seaweeds off. This small booklet provided has valuable source bridging the period before the valuable series Seaweeds off the British Isles was produced by the British Museum (Natural History) gold The Natural History Museum.

Research advanced so quickly that the need for apparent year up-to-date checklist became. Mary Parke (1902 - 1981), who has founder member off the British Phycological Society, produced has preliminary checklist British off marinades algae in 1953, corrections and additions off this were published in 1956,1957 and 1959. In 1964 M.Parke and Peter Stanley Dixon (1929 - 1993) published has revised checklist, has second revision off this was produced in 1968 and has third revision in 1976. Distribution was added to the checklist in 1986 with G.R.South and I.Tittley' S has Checklist and Distributional Index off the Benthic Marine Algae off the North Atlantic Ocean . In 2003 has Checklist and Atlas off the Seaweeds off Britain and Ireland was published by Gavin Hardy and Michael Guiry with has revised edition in 2006. This shows how rapidly knowledge off algae, At least in the British Isles, advanced. First able efforts had been made by interested biologists and people off identifying the algae, this required books using the botanical names. Botanical keys to identify the seedlings then developed, followed by checklists. Ace more information was brought to light by interested workers, nap volunteers, the checklists were improved and eventually has mapping design brought together all this information. The same pattern off knowledge developed with Birds, Mammals and Flowering seedlings, though to has different time-scale and knowledge in other shares off the world has developed to this dismantles. -->

Evolution of the classification of the algae

The evolution off classification in the algae

Linnaeus' S " sexual system" (Linnaeus, 1754) in which He grouped seedlings according to the number off stamens and carepels in the flowers, although wholly artificial was advantageous in that has newly discovered seedling could Be fitted in amongst those already known. He divided the seedling kingdom into 25 classes, one off which was the Cryptogamia - seedlings with " concealed reproductive organs" (see above) (Smith, 1955). Ace has consequence off the great increase in the number off species the artificiality off the Linnaean system was appreciated so that during the 18th considerable Century and early 19th Century numbers off new generated were described. J.V.F.Lamouroux in 1813 was the first to separate the groups one the basis off color, however this was not taken up by other botanists and it was Harvey, who in 1836, divided the algae into furnace major unscrewed solely one the basis off to their pigmentation: Rhodospermae (red algae), Melanospermae (brown algae), Chlorospermae (green algae) and Diatomaceae (Dixon, 1973 p.232).

Recently (1990s) The Kingdom: Protoctista has been recommended however this has not been accepted by many authors.

Obituaries, memoria and appreciations off distinguished Phycologists: -

Burrows, Elsie Mr. (Dr.) (1913 - 1986) Norton, T.A. 1987. Obituary: Br.phycol.J. 22 : 317 - 319).

Blackler, Margaret Constancy Helen (1902 - 1981) Irvine, D.E.G and Russell, G. 1982. Obituary: Br. phycol. J. 17 : 343 - 346.

Conway, Elsie. (1902 - 1992). Boney, A.D. 1993 Year appreciation. The Phycologist 35 : 3.

of Váléra, Máirin (1912 - 1984). Guiry, M.D. and Dixon, P.S. 1985. Obituary: Br. Phycol. J. 20 : 81 - 84.

Dixon, Peter Stanley (1929 - 1993). Murray, S.N and Scott, J.L. 1995. In Memoriam Peter Stanley Dixon (1929 - 1993) Phycologia 34 : 538 - 543.

Eifion Jones, Willian (1925 - 2004). Fogg, T. 2004. 2004 In memoriam. ; The Phycologist. 67 : 19.

Irvine, David Edward Guthrie (1924 - 1995). Fletcher, R.L. 1996: Obituary: The Phycologist 4 : 3 - 7.

Manton, Irene. (1904 - 1988). Leedale, G. 1989. Obituary: Br phycol. J. 24 : 103 - 109.

Newton, Lilly (born Batten) (1893 - 1981). Jones, G. 1982. Obituary: Br. phycol. J. 17 : 1 - 4.

Papenfuss, George Frederik (1903 - 1981). Abbott, I.A. 1982. Obituary: Br. phycol. J. 17 : 347 - 349.

Parke, Mary (1908 - 1989). Green, J.C. 1990. Obituary: Br. phycol. J. 25 : 211 - 216.

Taylor, William Randolph. (1895 - 1990). Hillis, L. 1992. Obituary: Br. phycol. J. 27 : 1 - 2.

Miscellaneous Notes

Máirin de Valéra (1912 - 1984). Professor Emerita off Botany At University College, Galway.

Edward Batters (1860 - 1907). B.A.; FLS 1883 notes (personal) file one Biologists under " Holmes"

Elmer Yale Dawson (1918 - 1966).

Kathleen Mr. Drew Baker (… 1925 - 1927…). University off Manchester. President off the British Phycological Society 1953.

Elsie Conway (born) Philips) (1902 - 1992) Visited University off British Columbia in 1969 - 1970 and researched there in 1972 - 1974. She was president off the British Phycological Society 1965 - 1967. Retired in 1969.

Elsie Mr. Burrows (Dr.) (1913 - 1986). University off Liverpool.

Margaret Constancy Helen Blackler (1902 - 1981). Assistant Keeper off Botany, Liverpool Museum (1933 - 1945). In 1947 joined staff University St Andrews.

Peter Stanley Dixon (1929 - 1993). Professor Emeritus off Biology At University off California.

William Dwyn Isaac (1905 - 1995).

Harald Kylin (… 1906 - 1949…). Author: Die Gattengen der Rhodophyceen. 1956 CWK Gleerups Förlag, Lund. Specimens in Ulster Museum….

George Russell (… 1983 - 1984…). President off British Phycological Society 1983 - 1984.

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