The history of the Chimie is intrinsically related to the will of the Man to include/understand the nature and the properties of the Matière, more particularly the way in which this one changes. The history of chemistry begins with the discovery from the Feu which is the first energy source used by the man to improve his daily newspaper; lighting, heating, cooking of food etc the control of fire has made it possible to carry out the first controlled transformations of the matter, in particular the manufacture of the Verre and Céramique but also of metal Alliage S. The history of chemistry is also marked by the many attempts to develop a coherent theory of the matter among which one can quote the theories atomic of Démocrite and of the elements of Aristote during the ancient period or the development of the Alchimie to the Middle Ages. Chemistry will be distinguished from the latter only around the XVII century, in particular by work of Robert Boyle which applies the scientific Méthode to its experiments. The publication of its famous Sceptical Chemyst in 1661 is often regarded besides as the starting point of modern chemistry. Later, work of Lavoisier on the laws of the conservation of the mass will contribute definitively to place chemistry at the row of science. Currently the interdisciplinarity in the scientific world makes that it is sometimes difficult to differentiate the history from the chemistry of that of the Physique or of the life sciences such as the Biochimie.

Prehistory

The bases of chemistry must be put in connection with the discovery by the man of fire at the time Paléolithique, 400  000 years before our era, and which is completed at the end of the last Glacial period, 8  000 years before our era. In addition to the fact that it made it possible the man to heat and cook its food, fire can also be regarded as the first energy source used by the man. This energy first of all enabled him to process its food (cooking of food) but also to carry out new materials like potteries by cooking of the Argile. The Charcoal is also used like Pigment in prehistoric paintings in the Grotte S or the shelters - under - rock. It will be also used thereafter as fuel.
Little by little, the attention of the men seems to be drawn by certain rocks or coloured stones: red blood stone (Oxide iron extracts from clays with Hématite), yellow ocher (iron oxide extracted clays with Goethite and Limonite), blue or green stones (copper carbonates, azurite or Malachite), stones violets containing oxide of Manganèse (Manganite, pyrolusite).

There is 10  000 years, the natural Bitume is exploited by the people of the Middle East for its many properties. It is used as a raw material for the design of buildings.

Antiquity

The beginning of Antiquity sees the beginnings of the metallurgy (Paléométallurgie), i.e. the extraction by the man of metals starting from the ores present in nature, generally in the form of salts. These metals will be then worked over again and used either in pure form or as a Alliage.

• Gold: used at the native state since the beginnings of Antiquity. Inalterable metal and of very low chemical reactivity it does not have, during this period, is the subject of any chemical conversion. Regarded then as a perfect metal, it revêt a money value and artistic important
• the money: present at the native state in the form of alloy with gold (electrum). It can also be extracted the Galène
• the Cuivre: it could be found in a native state but also in impure form in malachite. Its trade during Antiquity will be an important source of richness
• the Bronze: first alloy manufactured by the man. The tin which uses for 10% its composition was at the time very abundant. Bronze appears in the neighborhoods of year -3000 (Bronze Age) and will first of all be used in the manufacture of weapons.
• the Iron: It would have been discovered there is approximately 3.800 years in Anatolia by the Hittites. Its first uses, also for military applications, go back to 2500 before J-C. Its domestication is later because more difficult. Iron does not exist in a native state (put aside iron coming from meteorite). To obtain it is necessary of reduced iron oxides using charcoal. The man realized whereas the addition of a certain quantity of carbon returned iron more edge and more resistant. It was the appearance of the first Acier
• the Laiton: alloy made up of copper and Zinc. It appears towards 1000 av. J.C. ; one in particular found some in Roman parts.
• the Bitumen and the asphalts natural were used as Mastic for sealing (Imperméabilité) for the clothes industry of cuts and statuettes and to cement the brick S.

Egypt

The Egyptians can extract the Fer from its ores. They would have invented the Verre approximately 3.800 years ago starting from the Sable of the desert and the Natron heated by the furnace until Fusion to which one often adds lime. The Egyptians know also the Fermentation which enables them to produce Bière. They manufacture dyes (Indigo, Cinabre), used in particular for the make-up S (Malachite).

China

• Manufacture of the Porcelain.

Greece

It is known that the Minoen S roasted the Pyrite (FeS₂) to use it as iron ore.

• Certains historians of sciences regards Thalès Millet as the founder of chemistry: the matter consists of water. For its disciple, Anaximène of Millet, the paramount element is the air which becomes fire by dilation, then wind.

A little later, Xénophane of Colophon proposes the ground like root of any thing. (It is at that time that the art of the Greek pottery is renewed by red reasons on black bottom or blacks on red bottom). For Héraclite, fire is at the origin of the things.

• For Empédocle there exist four basic elements: the water, the air, the fire and the ground which attract themselves or are pushed back. We learn by this author that the red Carmin, used to dye the flax, was obtained starting from insects (the cochineal S). Plato takes again later this theory by associating these four elements with geometrical forms connected to numbers of triangles. Thus fire is associated with Tetrahedron (4 triangles equilateral) which has the most pointed edges (from where the fact that it pricks), the Earth with the Cube (24 isosceles right-angled triangles signs stability), the Air with a Octaèdre (8 equilateral triangles) and Water with a Isocaèdre (20 equilateral triangles). Aristote, raises of Plato, will take again the model of the 4 elements in their associating 4 qualities: the wet one, dryness, heat and cold. Each element is then described like association of 2 qualities (for example: fire is a combination of dryness qualities and heat). The writings of Aristote will be translated into Arabic and, later, will be translated into Latin by Thomas d' Aquin and Roger Bacon. The doctor Galien will introduce by after 4 moods (blood, phlegme, yellow bile and black bile) like a combination of qualities of Aristote. The medicine of Galien will remain a reference during Antiquity and all Middle Ages.

• the philosopher Anaxagore sees the world in perpetual change, without creation nor matter destruction but with rearrangements of the elementary particles.

• Leucippe then Démocrite thinks that the matter is made up of elementary entities, the Atome S. This atomic theory, revealed by Épicure and Lucrèce, will be used as a basis for alchemy. The hooked atoms ensure the cohesion of the matter while the round atoms explain the Fluidité liquids.

• Towards 40 after J. - C., a Greek doctor, Dioscoride, mentions the Soufre in its writings as well as a white powder obtained by Calcination of certain stones being used to produce the Orichalque.

Rome

Towards 30 front. J-C, Vitruve, in its treating work of materials and techniques of construction Structured , quotes several materials whose lime, the Roman Ciment, the Ocre, the Orpiment, the Pourpre, the Garance, the Pastel… Pline the Old one, in its Natural history , recapitulates chemical substances known at its time of which sulfur, the Naphte, the Gypse. Other substances, quite known before the Romans, are mentioned in documents like the Papyrus of Leyde and Papyrus of Stockholm, the Lapidaires (given on the invaluable stones) and of the works of (Zosime of Panapolis).

In addition to the substances quoted before, we find:

• the rock crystal or quartz used by the Romans for manufacture of Magnifying glass S.
• the Pierre of magnesia likely to exert an action on iron.
• the Alum.
• the salt of Cappadoce .
• the flower of copper (chalcanthon) or Vitriol .
• the Quicksilver or cash which forms easily Amalgame S with metals.
• the niter or Salpetre of white, water soluble color.
• the Litharge or the Orpiment employed in alloys to replace gold, too expensive.

Among the known techniques, let us quote the Bain-marie and the Distillation which provides various spirits (produced light) and of the oils (produced heavy, less Volatil S). The spirit of naphtha and the naphtha oil, as example, were obtained by distillation of naphtha).

Birth of alchemy

• the Alchimie is born in Alexandria towards. The alchemists seek to manufacture starting from various metals the perfect Métal which is the Or. The objective is the manufacture of the Philosopher's stone which transmutes metals into gold and allows the preparation of the Panacée or universal cure. Alchemy is also a spiritual research and requires an initiation of its secrecies. The bodies are classified in solids, liquids and vapors and according to their color. They interact according to concepts of sympathy and antipathy. This philosophy is based on the theory of the four elements of Plato supplemented by the introduction of the Quintessence (5th Gasoline or the fifth element).
• Sulfur, mercury and salt: the Sulfur and the mercury result from Arab alchemy and salt from Paracelse. To sulfur all is attached that is hot, hard and male; with mercury all that is cold, female; as for salt it ensures the cohesion of sulfur and mercury during their union.

The Middle Ages

Arab civilization

• civilization arabo-Moslem woman counts brilliant alchemists of which Jabir Ibn Hayyan and Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya Al-Razi. By seeking gold, they work on other matters such as for example the nitric Acid and improve the Distillation.

Occident

Bases of alchemy

• alchemy arrives to Europe with the translations of the Arab texts. Many terms (as Alkali for example) will be directly taken again besides Arab language. In addition, because of the Great plague which prevails then, alchemy claims to improve health by potions or remedies containing known chemical substances. In 1317, the pope Jean XXII in Avignon, reacts against the frauds in the currencies and false metals containing of gold.
• There existed at the beginning of the Middle Ages an important relation between alchemy and the Astrologie. At that time, 7 metals were known (With, Ag, Cu, Fe, Sn, Pb, Hg) and astrology counted 7 planets (by including the Sun and the Moon). The connection being established as follows:

• Sun - gold (With)

• Mercury - mercury (Hg)
• Venus - copper
• the Moon - the money (Ag)
• Mars - iron (Fe)
• Jupiter - tin (Sn)
• Saturn - lead (Pb)

Certain expressions of the language go back to this time. For example, the Saturnisme indicates an intoxication with lead. It is also advisable to announce, at the XXe century the wink by scientists at the time of discovered radioactive elements which were named Uranium, Neptunium and Plutonium in connection with the name of the three planets uranus, neptune and Pluto then unknown with the Middle Ages. Robert Grossetête and Roger Bacon, which preaches the experimentation like work method for the chemists, is representative of this time. Albertus Magnus (Albert the Large one), Dominican monk , was a chemist and appreciated alchemist. It is him which insulated for the first time the Arsenic.

Receipts

Many experiments of Transmutation led to metallurgical receipts and the preparation of new compounds:

• the Vitriol: H₂SO₄
• the strong water: H₃NO₃
• the Spirit of salt: HCl
• the moon vitriol: Ag₂SO₄
• Venus crystals: CuNO₃
• the Blasting powder.
• the spirit of wine to several degrees of alcohol.
• the Eau levels able to dissolve gold.

No theoretical progress in these esoteric “receipts” which are often recopies of former works, but a notable development of the instrumentation and handling.

China and Orient

• Invention of the Gunpowder by the Chinese at the 10th century of our era. who will be replaced as from 1847 by the Nitroglycérine by Ascanio Sobrero.

Rebirth and XVI^e century

The Renaissance is a intellectual reaction against the irrefutable fact and the ecclesiastical capacity (Galileo, the Réforme with Calvin and Luther, Concile of Thirty, Wars of religion,…). Indeed, until this period, the search for an explanation other than divine to the natural phenomena is prohibited until the heliocentrism of Nicolas Copernic (1473 - 1543). This period is that of the Humanisme, but the old ones to which one refers, start to be held a certain distance. Chemistry will be detached progressivent of alchemy, Andreas Libavius, for example, is an alchemist representative of this time.

Paracelse

Paracelse, by its practice of the Medicine and its research on the Drug S (iatrochimy), is regarded as the precursor of modern chemistry all while referring to the theory of the four elements and the Vitalisme. It highlights, for therapeutic reasons, the Soufre and the mercury. Other metals like the Arsenic, the Antimony and the Bismuth will be mentioned in the works of medicine of the Rebirth. A polemic will be born on toxicity or not from the remedies containing from antimony. With Vésale, one will distinguish the chimyque Pharmacie (laboratory) from ordinary pharmacy (medicinal herbs). Many instruments of handling: Spatula S, apparatuses of Distillation, Still S, Cornue S… were invented in the laboratories of the alchemists.

engineers

The new ideas are conveyed by translations of works resulting from the Greek or Arabic, the Imprimerie contributing to the diffusion of the knowledge. Many minerals, plants and animals are brought back voyages by the large navigators Vasco de Gama, Christophe Colomb, Magellan, Jacques Cartier, Francis Drake. This scientific revolution in Occident led to develop the spirit of experimentation combined with the techniques of calculation (the algebra of Raphaël Bombelli appears in 1572) in the laboratories and the first factories. Military needs (Artillery, Canon, blasting powder…) in an important way the development of the mine S and the production of metals will support and alloys. It is thus the quantification by the means of the measuring instruments which characterizes more the Rebirth: measurements of Pressure, Temperature (invention of the Barometer by Evangelista Torricelli (1643), Thermometer)….It is the time of the engineers. Bernard Palissy (1499 - 1589) specializes about 1463 in the production of enamels and Faïence. In 1540, Vannoccio Biringuccio, which publishes pirotechnia libri , is the precursor of the Pyrotechnie.

Agricola

Georg Bauer known as Agricola (1494 - 1555) founds metallurgical chemistry and defines metals and alloys more precisely: he more particularly studies the Galène, the Blende and mentions the Zinc and bismuth. Its principal posthumous work, (" Of Re Metallica "), which appears in 1556, is a metallurgy treaty comprising of the precise details on the production of green Vitriol whose oil is particularly corrosive. The Charcoal, employed up to now for the heating of the ores will be gradually replaced by the pit coal (Houille). In 1546, it publishes will natura fossilium , first treaty of Minéralogie (the term mineralogy will be mentioned by Bernardo Cesi in 1636).

XVII^e century

Trades of this century (Dyer S, Apothecary S, Minor S, metallurgists, Distiller S, Engineer S soldiers.) are representative of the scientific spirit of the time. There is no theoretical opening in chemistry (contrary to physics: Descartes, Newton, Leibniz), in spite of the great number of scientific works (see for example Johannes Hartmann), of experiments and discovered which follow one another. Declining alchemy leaves room with the theory of the Phlogistique and pneumatic chemistry.

Atomism and phlogistic

Pierre Gassendi (1592 - 1655) begins again into 1624 the atomic theories of Antiquity and specifies the concept of atom and in 1620, Francis Bacon, which publishes Novum Organum , takes party for the atomism. Georg Ernst Stahl (1659 - 1734) names phlogistic (of the Greek phlogiston) the flammable ground. In 1630, Jean Rey (1583 - 1645), doctor, notes before the hour, which a metal heated with the air forms a lime (Oxyde) heavier than metal what raises question within the framework of this theory. About 1680, Johann Joachim Becher (1635 - 1682), writes that the combustible bodies and metals are composed of vitrifiable grounds, flammable (which are released by combustion) and mercurielles. Newton, which is alchemist in addition to being a physicist, thinks that there exist forces between the Particule S, comparable with the forces of Gravitation. By seeking the Philosopher's stone, Hennig Brandt will obtain in 1669 the Phosphore by Distillation of the human Urine.

Gases

Jan Baptist van Helmont (1577 - 1644) differentiates gases and characterizes the woodland gas (CO₂). It is at the conclusion of experiments, and not of intuitions, which it states its results. It obtains, for example, the gas sulfureum by Combustion of sulfur and notes that it forms with water oleum sulphuris . In addition, it is known at the time the woodland gas can be obtained by various methods: action of the Vinegar on the Calcareous , combustion of coal, Fermentation of the grape… With regard to the vinegar, Johann Rudolf Glauber discovers that the wine vinegar and the wood vinegar are of comparable nature. It founds, in 1850, in Amsterdam a chemical plant of Savon and glass. After the development of glass of Crystal to lead in 1676, the art of the glassmaking is studied by Johannes Kunchel in 1689 and Jean Haudicquer de Blancourt in 1697. In 1662, Robert Boyle (1627 - 1691) establishes the law of the gases at constant temperature and publishes The Sceptical Chymist and in 1676, Edme Mariotte makes appear in 1679 its test on the air and supplements the law of gases of Boyle.

A treaty of chymy

In 1675, Nicolas Lémery publishes the first great treaty of chemistry. Nature is divided into minerals, plants and animals. The theory of seven metals and the absence of symbols reveal the chymy more like one art that like a science. It introduces the mixed concept of (mixture) and of body whose elements cannot be chemically separate. It defines the acids (water, oil of vitriol levels, strong water), vitriols, alkalis (bases) and salts.

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XVIII^e century

This century will know the multiplication of the laboratories and the scientific publications. The Manufacture S and factories will take their rise and a multitude of new substances will appear. New topics of studies, like the Combustion, the Calcination (transformation of limestone into lime) and the Reduction of the ores (Cassiterite out of tin, lead crystal), the breathing of the plants… will be thorough. the chimye will become a science as testify to it the works to Pierre Joseph Macquer elements of theoretical chymy (1749), Dictionnaire of Chymie (1766) and Antoine Baume, Maître apothecary of Paris, Chymie experimental and reasoned 3 volumes (1773), before awaiting Lavoisier and its treated elementary of chemistry (1789) and the law of Conservation of the mass. Alchemy is always also popular and revêt even a spectacular and mercantile character (Giacomo Casanova).

Return on the phlogistique one

Georg Ernst Stahl, which carries out certain numbers of work on combustion, publishes Zymotechnia fundamentalis in 1697, followed Fundamenta Chymiae dogmatica and experimentalis in 1723. It notes that, when a metal is heated, this one gives lime, which itself heated in the presence of coal, gives again initial metal. It from of deduced that the combustible principle present in metal escapes from this one at the time of its calcination and is released with the Flamme. In the same way, the charcoal reduces the ore because it contains, him also, the same combustible principle, the phlogiston or phlogistic which must be regarded as an element among the others. The wood ash, for example, is wood déphlogistiqué by combustion. This theory is officially diffused by Rouelle in 1742

Pneumatic chemistry or chemistry of gases

Following various experiments on the animals, one puts the question to know if digestion is a mechanical operation of crushing or a chemical conversion as the chemists think it. Stephen Haul watch of them 1727 that the air is necessary to the growth of the Plante S via the Feuille S. It invents, for its experiment, the tank with water which will be at the base of many experiments. It is with this process that Joseph Black observes the calcination of lime. In 1757, it will highlight the air fixes (it is the woodland gas of Van Helmont or carbon Dioxide) by showing that the action of an acid on limestone gives a gas which disturbs the Eau of lime. (A chemist, Joseph Jacquin, will notice that the lime weight obtained after calcination is lower than the limestone weight before heating…). Black also notes that the limestone, attacked by another acid, gives place to a release of `'gas of metals''.

One of the operational limits of the water tank was the difficulty in highlighting certain more or less water soluble gases. Priestley, in 1792, uses mercury in the place of water in its experiments on the air. It obtains, in 1774, by calcination using a lens of the red mercury (HgO), a gas, which it names air déphlogistiqué , which will be applelé later oxygen, which allows breathing and maintains combustion.

Discovered other gases

In 1765, Cavendish insulates the flammable air (hydrogen). Three kinds of air are known at the time of Henry Cavendish: the normal or atmospheric air, the air of metals (or flammable air because it maintains combustion) and the air fix (which, on the contrary, stops combustion). By measuring the density of these three gases about 1765, Cavendish establishes that the air fixes is heavier than the atmospheric air and the flammable air , than Cavendish compares to the phlogistic much lighter. To carry out this experiment, it makes use of a Eudiomètre. Daniel Rutherford discovers, in 1772, another gas which it names air phlogistiqué or harmful air (Azote). In short, the phlogistic is recognized like the flammable air , the air déphlogistiqué disorder the lime water whereas the air phlogistiqué it hoop net not. In 1772, Priesley insulates the nitrous air (oxide nitric, the air of marine acid (hydrochloric gas) and the nirteux air Peroxyde of nitrogen and the vitriolic air (Sulfur dioxide).

All this will remain confused and the theory of phlogistic will remain until Lavoisier. Scheele discovers in 1773, the marine acid déphlogistiqué (or spirit of salt) while making act the muriatic acid on pyrolusite. This product, studied by Berthollet will be used later on in 1785 for the Blanchiment of the linen and the production of Bleach. While making again act the muriatic acid on a homogeneous mixture of sulfur and iron filings which it ignites, Scheele obtains a still unknown gas characterized by a strong rotted egg odor which it names air of sulfur . In 1777, Pierre Bayen (1725 - 1798) will dispute, before Lavoisier, the theory of the phlogistique one.

Acids and bases

The concept of acid gradually takes form during the XVIII ième century. One distinguishes the acids coming from the nonalive one. It is: acéteux acid or Vinegar, the sulphuric Acid or oil of vitriol, the etching (or Acid nitric) obtained starting from salpetre, the Muriatic acid or spirit of salt and the acids phosphoric and benzoic (starting from the Benzoin).

Certain acids start to be extracted the alive one; it are, for the majority, resulting from work of Scheele as from 1760. Let us quote, in the chronological order, the tartaric Acid starting from the Tartre (1769), the Uric acid starting from urinary calculations (1776), the Lactic acid starting from the Lait (1780), the citric Acid starting from the Citron (1784), the Malic acid starting from the Pommes (1785), the Gallic acid starting from the Noix of Galle (1786), the Oxalic acid starting from the Sucre and of strong water (1784). It is the same of the hydrofluoric Acid starting from and oil of vitriol Fluorine and of the Prussic acid obtained by the action of the sulphuric acid on a dye, the Prussian blue.

With regard to the bases, we know that Lavoisier used the Potasse (or vegetable alkali) and the Soude (marine alkali). The Ammonium (ammonia) and the natron were also known.

Metallurgy and industrial chemistry

New metals are discovered: the Cobalt by George Brandt in 1735. In 1751, Alex Frederik Cronsted discovers the Nickel. The manganese is extracted from pyrolusite in 1780 (Johann G.Gahn) and the Molybdène is discovered in 1782. (Jacques Hjelm). The discovery of the Tungstène will occur the following year. In 1791, William Gregor discovers the Titane and Jean gadolin the Yttrium. In 1797, Nicolas Vauquelin characterizes the Chrome and the Tellure is discovered in 1798 by Martin H.Klaproth.

In the field of the metallurgy, the charcoal is replaced gradually by the coke which one heats to obtain from the Acier starting from the cast iron. It is at that time that Benjamin Hunstmann invents the crucible steel. In 1743, a Fonderie of zinc is created with Bristol. Work of Lavoisier will allow a better knowledge of metals and ores which are appeared as oxides (Cassitérite, Hématite…) that one heats in the presence of coal as in the blast furnaces. Coal plays at the same time the part of Oxydant and Réducteur. For the Sulfide S, like the Sphalerite, one carries out a netting in a draft, so that oxygen oxidizes metal whereas the Sulfur dioxide gets clear.

The beginning of industrial chemistry is characterized by the sulphuric manufactoring process of Acid (oil of vitriol) of the rooms of lead developped at the point by John Roebuck.

Antoine Lavoisier

It is in 1765, that Antoine Lavoisier publishes his work on the Gypse. Its studies on combustion lead it to the conclusion which the déphlogistiqué air is oxygen. During combustion, a fuel releases from oxygen whereas the result of the calcination is a lime (oxide) less oxygen. This new theory of phlogistic is published in 1777 and is deepened in 1785. During the combustion of phosphorus in the air, Lavoisier notes the formation of a residual gas which it names mofette atmospheric and which corresponds to the air phlogistiqué characterized by Rutherford in 1772. It establishes that the atmospheric air is composed of 20% of oxygen and 80% of mofette . It also specifies, in its experiment on the decomposition of the Eau (of which the eudiometric synthesis will be carried out by Cavendish), that this one is a mixture of flammable air (Hydrogène) and of oxygen. Within sight of these results, it will be definitively admitted, in 1785, that neither the air nor water are simple elements. Old the Chymie disappears in spite of some errors like the Lumière and the heating one regarded as elements.

Affinities and nomenclature

At the beginning of the century, one tries to include/understand how the chemical bodies or elements can attract each other the ones towards the others. A first beginning of explanation is tried, in 1718, by Geoffroy. The elements known at the time are classified in a table of the various reports/ratios or affinities whose idea will be taken up in 1761 by Christlieb Gellert, then, the same year, by Jean-Philippe de Limbourg in a news table of chymic affinities . Karl Scheele will also carry out the same type of classification. In 1787, Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet and Antoine de Fourcroy will publish a method of nomenclature chemical , work considered as essential for the clarification and information-gathering and ordering in chemistry. A table, summarizing the 55 substances known in six categories, mentioned and with accompanying notes, supplements this work divided into two parts: on the one hand oxides, acids, bases, salts… and on the other hand substances drawn from the plants and animals. A dictionary accompanies the work and draft by the synonyms. It is necessary to mention however the absence of chemical symbols in spite of an attempt at Hassenfratz and Adet. It is Berzelius which will introduce these symbols a little later making it possible to represent the chemical Composés. Two years later, Lavoisier will publish the elementary treaty of chemistry , a capital work where hydrogen, oxygen and carbon will appear by name. In 1792, Richter publishes the Art of the measurement of the chemical elements and notices that the ponderal reports/ratios of elements are constant in certain chemical families and in 1794, Joseph Louis Proust establishes the Loi of the definite proportions.

XIX^e century

It is during this century, that chemistry takes truly its rise: atomic Theory of Dalton, laws on gases, assumption of Avogadro, calculation of the Atomic weight S, birth of the Organic chemistry, theory of the valence, structural chemistry and classification of the elements by Mendeleïev and periodic classification of the elements. At the end of the century, physics and chemistry contribuerontà the discovery of the Radioactivity.

the electrolysis and the discovery of new elements

It is in 1800 qu' Alessandro Volta invents the Battery. The Cérium is discovered by Wilhelm Hisinger in 1803. In 1804, the Iridium and the Osmium are discovered by Smithson Holding and the same year, William Wollaston insulates the palladium and the Rhodium. The laws of the electrolyzes, deepened by William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle, will highlight the dissociation of an acid or basic aqueous solution under the action of electricity. Two gases are obtained: a volume of hydrogen and two volumes of oxygen. These results give the idea to Humphrey Davy to subject to electrolysis, either solutions, but of the melted bodies as the potash. It notes the formation of a metal: Potassium or Sodium around one of wire. With the same method it will insulate, in 1808, earthy metals : the Magnesium, the Calcium, the Strontium and the Barium. In 1810, it shows that the acid sailor déphlogistiqué , or muriatic oxide , is a Element: the Chlorine. The muriatic acid is the Hydrochloric acid . In 1834, Michael Faraday states the quantitative laws of electrolysis. Svante August Arrhenius proposes, in 1883, a theory of electrolysis to interpret the Faraday's law, based on the existence of elementary atomic loads Ions.

beginnings of the organic chemistry

Berzelius defines it in 1808, like the chemistry of the living beings , impregnated definition of Vitalisme. At the beginning, it is the chemistry of derived from carbon known and the substances contained in coal gas. William Murdoch had developed lighting with coal gas in 1792 and 1799. Lighting with wood gas (thermolampe) had been patented by Philippe Lebon. The urban development of these novel methods had led to the design of works gas, of means of storage and pipes of routing for the distribution. The Goudron is under product of coal gas which prevents the putrefaction of the wood and which is used for the Calfatage hulls of boat out of wooden. It is presented in the form of a viscous, black liquid with strong characteristic odor. At the time, there exist other organic substances: Dyeing, Soap, Tanning… In 1802, Fourcroy and Vauquelin establish that the formic Acid is a mixture of Malic acid and of Acid acetic (whose Berzelius will establish the formula in 1814). In 1805, Friedrich Sertürmer insulates the Morphine, then in 1817 Joseph Pelletier the emetic . These discoveries of products Alcaloïde S will be followed the following year by the Brucine, the Strychnine, the colchinine, substances discovered by Joseph Caventou and Pelletier which will insulate, in 1820, the Quinine and the Caféine. In 1823, Jean Antoine Chaptal will make appear his work Chimie applied to agriculture . Faraday discovers the carbureted hydrogen (C₆H₆) in coal gas in 1825. In 1826, Otto Undervorben isolates the crystallin from the Indigo by distillation and Gay-Lussac extracts the racemic acid from the Tartre.

The year 1828 is important: Furrier and Cavendou isolate the Nicotine and Friedrich Wohler carries out the synthesis of the Urée. It shows the possibility of obtaining organic substances (urea) starting from the mineral substances (cyanate of money and ammonium chloride). The saliciline is extracted from the bark of Saule by Pierre Joseph Leroux in the 1829 (sales launch of the Aspirine by Bayer will take place in 1899. In 1833, Dumas establishes the formula of the Camphre.

Chevreul and greasy substances

Chevreul is interested towards 1810 in the Fat contents used in industry: soap factories, food, lighting, textile (oiling). In 1813, it shows that the action of an alkali on the Graisse of pig forms a Savon and releases from the Glycérine. It shows, the same year, by making act of the sulphuric acid diluted on the soap, that this one is made of two acids: one solid (Margarine), the other liquidates ( fluid grease ). The lard thus consists of glycerin, margarine and fluid grease . In 1814, it extracts from butter the Butyric acid and from the gallstones, the choléstérine. The acids stearic and oleic are salts which are dissociated by glycerin alkalis and acid and which recombines with the metal of alkali. Salts of fatty-acids are obtained starting from potash and give soft soaps, whereas those obtained starting from soda give hard soaps. In 1817, Chevreul studies the acid delphic. The capric acids and caproic will be characterized the following year. While making boil bones of animals, Braconnot obtain in 1820, by the action of the sulphuric acid diluted on the gelatin a `sugar of gelatin'. In its work, published in 1823, chemical Recherches on the greasy substances of animal origin Michel Chevreul carries out a classification of the greasy Substance met in its work. The Glycéride S like the Stéarine (glycerin and Stearic acid) will result from the combinations of glycerin and fatty-acids. The rupture of the bond between glycerin and fatty-acids by the action of soda (Hydroxide of sodium) will be called Saponification. It should be noted that all the greasy substances are not saponifiable. Following all this work, since 1825, the Bougie S in Stéarine will replace the Chandelle S out of tallow of animal.

Quantitative chemistry

To weigh quantities of products implies the use of the balances. Work of Richter on the Stoichiometry in 1792 and the Loi of the definite proportions (1802) rests on weighings sullied with uncertainties of precision: in a made up Body, the content of various elements is constant. John Dalton, in 1804, carries out the quantitative analysis of the marsh gas and the oil-producing gas which is both of the binary compounds containing hydrogen and carbon. It states the Loi of the multiple proportions: when different compounds are formed of the same elements, the proportions of those are in a simple report/ratio. This law will be supplemented in 1805 by the law of Gay-Lussac on gases.

The atomic theory, exposed by Dalton in 1803 in has new system off chemical philosophy , supposes that the atoms have a well defined mass called Atomic mass that Dalton calculates for some compounds. She explains particularly well the laws above and the law of conservation of the mass. She will have her partisans and her adversaries (Berthollet). A system of symbols will come to supplement this talk: the symbol represents an atom, an element equipped with a mass. The Molécule is represented by the association of the symbols of consecutive atoms. The Atomic weight will be different from one chemist to another (7,8,10 for example for oxygen). It is in 1811 qu' Amedeo Avogadro publishes its theory of the Nombre of Avogadro: one liter of gas always contains the same number NR of particles (atoms for an element, molecules for a made up body). It is Joseph Loschmidt who, in 1865, will try the first an evaluation of NR close to 4.10²². In 1873, Johannes Van der Waals will find NR = 6,2.10²². In 1814, Berzelius will use the symbols of Dalton and will establish equivalences between atoms. It will use letters as symbols: P (phosphorus), S (sulfur)… and will put the many equivalents of a molecule in notation exhibitor . The formulas were written in the following way: CaCO₃: CAD, CO₂/CuSO₄: CuO, SO₃. In this dualistic system, the first part is basic: CAD, CuO are metal oxides, it second part is acid: CO₂, SO₃ are metal oxides non. At the time of the first international congress of the chemistry which will proceed with Karlsruhe in 1860, Cannizzaro will expose the concepts of atoms and molecules admitted by the majority of the chemists. Berthelot, cepandant, will be opposed to atomic realism.

Towards the synthesis in organic chemistry

Scheele establishes the formula of the tartaric Acid (C₂H₃O₃) in 1830. That of the racemic acid discovered by Gay-Lussac is the same one. These two acids, which one finds in the tartar, have of the different points melting. Berzelius names these bodies of the Isomère S. In 1832, Justus von Liebig establishes that the Lactic acid coming from the Lait or of the meat to the same CH₂O formula. In 1833, Jean-Baptiste Dumas specifies the formula of camphor (C₁₀H₁₆O) and Christopher Zeise that of the Mercaptan C₂H₆S. the same year, Eilhard Mitscherlich obtains the Benzène by heating the Benzoic acid which can be obtained starting from the coal. In 1834, Jean-Baptiste Dumas, while making act the acetic acid on chlorine, highlights substitution partial of hydrogen by chlorine in chloracetic acid. He establishes the formula of the Chloroforme, obtained by Liebig and Carl Runge. In 1835, Justus von Liebig and Dumas characterize the groups ethyl and methyl. In 1836, Berzelius defines the Catalyze. The Aniline is prepared by Carl Fristsche by distillation of the Indigo. In 1842, John Leigh produces the Nitrobenzène which gives again aniline by the action of ammonium sulfide. In 1843, Charles Frederic Gerhardt obtains the bornéol starting from camphor.

The homologous series, the functional groups will be defined between 1842 and 1850 by Auguste Laurent, the Chiralité in 1848 (Louis Pasteur). In 1855, Charles Adolphe Würtz will develop its famous synthesis, (Réactions of Wurtz and Wurtz-Fittig) for the preparation of the Hydrocarbure S. the synthesis of formic acid will be carried out by Marcellin Berthelot in 1856. That of the Salicylic acid , by Hermann Kolbe in 1859 starting from the sodium phenolate obtained by the action of phenol on soda. In 1864, the synthesis of Rudolf Fittig and Tollens lead to the Toluène. In 1894, Henri Moissan obtains Acétylène starting from calcium carbide.

Structure of the organic compounds

The concept of carbonaceous Chaîne is introduced by Kékulé] in 1857 to define the sequences of carbon atoms in a molecule. The representation of bond interatomic by an indent is due to Archibald Couper. This representation, contrary to the Empirical formula, led to the developed formulas and makes it possible to specify the provision of the atoms in the molecules and the comprehension of the reactional mechanisms. In 1860, Kékulé differentiates the aliphatic greasy substances and the aromatic the such salicylic acids and benzoic compounds. The multiple concept of connection] , due) to Joseph Loschmidt (1863), makes it possible to explain the Hydrogénation. Catalytic hydrogenation will be developed in 1897 by Paul Sabatier and Senderens. In 1864, August Wilhelm von Hoffmann suggests a nomenclature for Alcanes and Alcènes.

It is in 1865, that Kékulé proposes the cyclic formula of benzene. The tetravalence of carbon is one of the basic principles of the organic chemistry. This formula will be re-examined in 1872 by the introduction of transitory connections into the benzene cycle. Geometrical isomerism, defined in 1863, is studied by Joseph Achille Beautiful the during work on the lactic acid. He proposes a space representation of the formulas of the forms Lévogyre and Dextrogyre. Jacobus Henricus van 'T Hoff will supplement this work by the tetrahedral concept of carbon. In 1888, Adolf von Bayer explains the malic isomerism of the acids and fumaric (which has different melting points), by isomerism Cis - Trans. The Stereochemistry, term of (Victor Meyer), constitutes the way of representing these different Isomère S.

Discovered new elements

Nonorganic chemistry progresses and, since 1810, Berzelius isolates the Silicium from the Silice which forms the quartz, sand which one finds in clay and many rocks. In 1824, the Portland cement will supplement hydraulic cement of John Smeaton developped at the point in 1715 containing lime. In 1808, Gay-Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard discover the Bore. In 1813, Bernard Courtois characterizes the iodine which will be extracted from the Varech by Antoine-Jerome Balard in 1826. In 1817, Friedrich Stromey discovers the Lithium. In 1828, the glucinium is discovered by Wöhler and the Thorium by Berzelius. Carl Gustav Mosander insulates the Lanthane in 1839 and the Erbium and the Terbium in 1843. Lastly, in 1845, the Ruthénium is discovered by Karl Karlovich Klaus.

A novel method, the spectral Analysis, will be born in 1859, developed by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff which will characterize the Césium and the Rubidium in 1860. The Thallium will be identified by William Hookes in 1861, by using the same method. It is into 1869 that Mendeleïev class the 62 elements known in a Tableau, attempt carried out in 1829 by Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner. The discovery of other elements continuous: in 1875, Lecoq de Boisbaudran discovers the Gallium, then the Holmium and the Ytterbium in 1878. In 1879, others Rare earths will be indexed: the Scandium, the Samarium, thulium, then gaddilium in 1880. In 1886, Lecoq de Boisbaudran insulates the Dysprosium and Henri Moissan the Fluor. The same year, Clemens Winkler discovers the Germanium. At the end of the century, Ramsay will discover the Argon (1894) and the Hélium (1895) and finally the discovery of the others rare gases (Néon, Krypton and Xénon).

Synthetic dyes and rubber

The chemical synthesis especially will develop in the fields of the Médicament S and the Colorant S. In 1807, Jean-Antoine Chaptal publishes the Art of the dyeing of red cotton . In 1838, Alexandre Wosrerenski obtains the Quinone starting from the Quinine. Since 1842, the Picric acid is used in industry like synthetic dye. In 1849, the Spirits of turpentine is at the base of the `dry cleaning. The Pyridine is obtained by distillation of the coal tar by (Thomas Anderson). William Henry Perkin succeeds in obtaining crimson of aniline or Mauvéine by treating aniline by the Bichromate of potassium. The red aniline or Fuschine will be manufactured a little later. The company Bayer will be created in Germany in 1863, then BASF in 1865. In 1867, the formula of the Naphtalène extracts from the coal tar is established. The synthesis of the Alizarine (1868) will be industrialized by BASF in 1870 per Carl Graebe is successful in 1875 by Friedrich Tiemann. The theory of the dyes with the chromophoric groupings and auxochromes will be work, in 1876, of Otto Nikolaus Witt. In 1875, Ramsay carries out the synthesis of the Pyridine. Lastly, Adolf von Bayer develops the synthesis indigo into 1879 that BASF markets in 1897.

With regard to the rubber, the invention of the pneumatic in 1888 (Dunlop) will emerge towards an industrial production by Michelin in 1889 then Goodyear.

Metallurgy

A new metal, the Aluminum is discovered by Wöhler in 1827. The mechanisms and reactions occurring in a blast furnace to produce steel are better and better included/understood: carburation, Refining. In 1826, Henry Bessemer invents a new converter which will be supplemented in 1878 by a new process of production (basic Bessemer steel). It is at that time that the special steels with the Manganèse are developed by Robert Hadfield. In 1863, the study of the Trempe leads to the Métallographie and the characterization of Cémentite and Ferrite. The structure of the Martensite of the tempered steels by Floris Osmond will be studied in 1890.

In 1860, the invention of the Pyromètre to Thermocouple by Henri Chatelier will allow the measurement of high temperatures. It will have to be waited until 1886 so that Paul Héroult produces aluminum by electrolysis.

Cathode rays, x-rays and radioactivity

The nature of the cathodic radiations in a tube of Hittorf is deepened by William Crookes in 1886. It is of the rays of corpuscular nature called electron S, since 1891, by George Stoney and recognized in experiments like such by Jean Perrin in 1895. These cathode rays consists of the electrified being able to be driven in the vacuum and undergoing the action of electric fields and magnetic negative particles. Joseph John Thomson arrives, by measurements of deviations of trajectory, to determine the relationship between the electric Charge E of the electron (1,602.10^-19 C). and its mass m (9,109.10^-31 kg) which accounts for approximately 1/2000 ième that of the hydrogen atom. These discoveries and measurements, rather of the field of physics, will lead to the model of atom of Thomson and will erase the doubts about the existence of the atoms formulated with the first Congress of the chemists of 1860. About the years 1890, one notices that cathode rays striking glass of a bulb cause a Fluorescence glass. Wilhelm Röntgen notes, in 1895, in addition to fluorescence observed, the presence of a new radiation invisible, energy and penetrating, able to impress a photographic plate surrounded by black paper. These mysterious X-rays will be used in radiography because they cross sulfates it double uranium and of potassium emit a radiation similar to x-rays: uranium the atoms, whatever the compound in which it are, emit `uranic rays', phenomenon different from the fluorescence caused by x-rays. This particular activity of the uranium atoms, continuous emission of energy, is called `Radioactivité' by Pierre Curie and Marie Curie in 1898, after measurement of the Ionization produced by the uranic rays by means of a electroscope . It is using this instrument which they will not discover that a sample of Pechblende has a high radioactivity due, with uranium alone, but with the Polonium and the Radium, two elements new contents in the ore. In 1899, Ernest Rutherford will show that the `uranic rays' are composed of two distinct radiations: Rays alpha and rays beta. He discovers also the radioactivity of the Thorium. The same year, Andre Debierne, finds the Actinium, a new radioactive element. In 1923, the emanation of radium, it even radioactive, will be called Radon. A radiation, more penetrating than x-rays, is emitted by the radium and observed by Paul Villard into 1900 who names it `Gamma ray'. XIXième century is thus completed on the beginning of the chemistry of the radiations: alpha, beta, gamma, X and on the discoveries of new radioactive elements which will be the subject of thorough research.

XX^e century

• 1913 : Bohr publishes his model of the structure of the atom.
• 1926 : Schrödinger publishes its model of the structure of the atom, model used today.
• 1953 : Discovered structure of DNA by Watson and Crick.

See too

• Line of the time of chemistry
• Discovered chemical elements
• History of electrochemistry
• Chronology of the events meaning in biology and chemistry

Sources

• Jean Donkey (2004), To think the matter - a history of the chemists and chemistry , Vuibert,

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