History of astronomy

Old woman of several thousands of years of history, the Astronomie is probably one of oldest Natural science, her origins going up beyond the Antiquité, in the prehistoric religious practices .

The Astronomie is the Science of the observation of the stars and seeks to explain their origin, their possible evolutions and also the influence which they have on the life of the every day: Tide S, believed of the Nile, Heat wave, etc This influence appears by certain exceptional phenomena (eclipse S, the shooting stars, etc) which for some were major events in the rhythm of life of the community as the Saison S. It should not however not be confused with very close disciplines such as the Archéoastronomie, the Celestial mechanics which is only particular fields.

The etymology of the term astronomy comes from the Greek αστρονομία ( άστρον and νόμος ) what means law of the stars .

Astronomy is perhaps oldest of sciences, as seems to indicate it number of discovered archaeological S dating from the Bronze Age and the Neolithic . Certain civilizations of these periods had already included/understood the periodic character of the equinox S and undoubtedly their relationship to the cycle of the seasons, they could also recognize a few tens of Constellation S. modern astronomy owes its development with that of the Mathématiques since the Greek antiquity and with the invention of instruments of observation at the end of the Moyen-âge. If astronomy were practiced during several centuries parallel to the Astrologie, the Century of the lights and the redécouverte of the Greek thought saw being born the distinction between the reason and the faith, so that astrology is not practiced any more by the astronomers nowadays.

History of astronomy itself

Prehistory

Antiquity

At its beginnings, astronomy consists simply of the observation and the prediction of the movement of the celestial objects visible with the naked eye: that constitutes the pre-telescopic Astronomie. Nevertheless we must with these different Civilization S from many contributions and Découverte S:

In the High one - antiquity

Preliminary:

Useless to specify it: if all the observations were done with the naked eye, the old ones were helped in this task by the absence of industrial pollution and especially luminous. For this reason, the majority of the observations to the antique would be impossible today.
One should not be mistaken there, these observations sometimes relatively simple seemingly (simple drawing of 4 or 5 stars), suppose already a high projection in the Civilization. Namely the existence of an at least gathering unit: a writing or at least of its outline, one (proto-writing gathering jointly a whole of signs representing the principal objects and events) and a “system” including/understanding a Cosmogony, a Cosmology, a known sky chart without forgetting a Calendar (sometimes very developed) and a observatory, this one often rudimentary. Without these preconditions, of Astronomical observation under no circumstances would it exist recordable.
During Thousand-year-old S, astronomy was not separated from the Astrologie, which was the primum besides - movens . The divorce will intervene only with the age of the Light S to remain nowadays.

the systems best known and most developed are:
At the beginnings of the History:

in the Old world:

Indian astronomy and Chinese: thus, the Rig-Veda mentions 27 Constellation S associated with the movement with the Sun as well as 13 divisions zodiacales with the sky.
astronomy sumérienne, and its derivative astronomies Chaldée, mésopotamienne, Egyptian and Hebraic. So that the Bible contains a certain number of statements about the position of the Ground in the Univers and on the nature of stars and planets.

in the new world, astronomies Amerindian born also already are very developed in particular the Toltèque, the Zapotèque (enough near) and the completely original Maya. Thus, without any optical instrument, astronomy Maya had succeeded in describing with precision the phases and eclipses of Venus.

the vestiges which reached us of the Neolithic , the such large circles megalithic of which most known are: Nabta Playa old of 6 000 with 6 500 years or Stonehenge (Wiltshire, England) set up between 5000 and 3500 before the present, can be qualified observatories with difficulty. Indeed their function was before any nun, and the observation, if observation it had there, was limited to the ritual location of solar alignments, perhaps lunar, at the time of raising it and of laying down these stars at certain times of the year. Moreover cultures which set them up do not answer the conditions expressed above: they are characterized in particular by the absence of a writing and documents which would enable us to deduce with certainty that the function from the monuments megalithic comprised well an astronomical component, or even as astronomy an important role in these civilizations played. Flammarion for example, and well about others before and after him, will speak about the megalithic circles about “monuments with astronomical vocation” and about “observatories about stone”. But the undertaken studies these thirty last years strongly moderated such an assertion.

In traditional Antiquity

old the Greek S contributes important shares to astronomy, in particular the definition of the system of magnitude.

Thus, Ptolémée (towards 90 - towards 168), astronomer and Greek astrologer which lived with Alexandria (today in Egypt) - also one of the precursors of the Géographie - was the author of several scientific treaties, whose two exerted thereafter a very great influence on sciences Islamic and European. One is the treaty of Astronomie, which is known today under the name of the Almageste (in Greek, Η μεγάλη Σύνταξις, the great treaty ). The other is the Géographie world gréco-Roman.

In the Almageste ( Al in Arabic, follow-up of a Greek superlative means “the very large one”), he proposes a geocentric model Solar system, which begun again by Aristote was accepted in the world S Occident with and Arabic during more than thousand three hundred years. The Almageste also contains a star catalog and a list forty-eight Constellation S, former to the modern system of constellations although not covering all the celestial Sphère.

For to sail on sea but also in the Deserted , the Arab Civilizations needed very precise data. Derived from Indian astronomy , Arab astronomy will culminate in 500, with the Âryabhata which presents a mathematical system chump end copernician, in which the Ground turns on its axis and considers the movement of the Planet S compared to the Sun. This nearly 1000 years before the Occident!

The Middle Ages: the Greek heritage developed by the Islam and transmitted to the occident

At that time, astronomy cannot be studied without the contribution of other sciences which are complementary and necessary for him: mathematical (Geometry, Trigonometry), as well as the Philosophy. It is used for calculation of the Temps.

On sciences and education in general with the Middle Ages:

High the Middle Ages

In Occident, is to be noticed:

the role of Boèce which must be announced like founder as of the 6th century of the Quadrivium, which includes the Arithmétique, the Géométrie, the Musique and astronomy.
deep consecutive decline with the cruel invasions.

in the Muslim world astronomy becomes flourishing there as from the 9th century in contrast with the Western decline. Let us quote:

the Persan astronomer Al-Farghani (805 - 880) written much on the movement of the Celestial body S. It carries out a series of observations which enable him to calculate the obliqueness of the ecliptic.
Al-Kindi (801 - 873), philosopher and encyclopedic scientist, writes 16 works of astronomy.
Al-Battani (855 - 923), astronomer and mathematician,
Al-Hasib Al Misri (850 - 930), Egyptian mathematician,
Al-Razi (864 - 930), scientific Iranian,
Al-Farabi (872 - 950) large philosopher and scientist.

At the end of the 10th century, large a observatory is built close to Teheran by the astronomer Al-Khujandi.

It forms integral part with the Philosophie (Plato and Aristote) and the unit of other sciences (Médecine, Géographie, Mécanique, etc), of this great movement of rebirth called golden age of the civilization arabo-Moslem woman .

Low the Middle Ages

Rebirth: geocentrism with the heliocentrism

During the Rebirth, Copernic proposes a heliocentric model solar system. This idea is defended, extended and corrected by Galileo and Kepler. Galileo imagines the telescope to improve his observations. Being based on statements of observation very precise facts by the large astronomer Tycho Brahé, Kepler is the first to imagine a system of laws governing the details of the movement of planets around the Sun, but is not able to formulate a theory going beyond the simple description presented in its laws.

It is Isaac Newton which, while describing the Gravitation by its laws of the movement, makes it universal and finally makes it possible to give a rational explanation to the movement of planets. He invents also the telescope reflectors, which improves the observations.

Contemporary time

It is discovered that the star S are very remote objects: the star nearest to the Solar system, Proxima of the Centaur, is with more than 4 light-years.

the Spectroscopy, as of its introduction shows that they are similar to our Sun, but in a great range of Température, Masse and size.

the existence of our Galaxy, as a unit distinct from stars, is not proven that at the beginning of the 20th century because of existence of others Galaxie S.
A little later one discovers the Expansion of the universe, consequence of the Loi of Hubble, establishing a relation between the speed of distancing of the others Galaxie S compared to the Solar system and their distance.
the Cosmologie makes great progress during the 20th century, in particular with the theory of the Big-Bang, largely supported by astronomy and physics, like the cosmological thermal Rayonnement (or fossil radiation), and the various theories of Nucléosynthèse explaining the abundance of the chemical elements and of their Isotope S.

End of the 20th century

In the last decades of the 20th century, the appearance of the Radio telescope S, Radioastronomy, and means of Data-processing treatment, authorizes new types of Expérimentation S on the Celestial body S moved away, by spectroscopic analysis of the emission lines emitted by the Atome S.

History of the disciplines of astronomy

At its beginning, during antiquity, astronomy consists mainly of the Astrométrie , i.e. the measure of location in the sky of the star S and the Planet S.

Later, from work of Kepler and Newton Celestial mechanics is born the which allows the mathematical forecast movements of the heavenly bodies under the action of the Gravitation, in particular the objects from the Solar system.

Nowadays, most of work in these two disciplines (astrometry and celestial mechanics), carried out before with the hand, is strongly automated thanks to the Ordinateur S and with the sensors CCC, so much so that now they are seldom regarded as distinct disciplines.

Henceforth, the movement and the position of the objects can be quickly known, so that modern astronomy is concerned much with the observation and the comprehension of the physical nature of the celestial objects.

Since the 20th century, professional astronomy tends to separate in two disciplines: theoretical Astronomy of observation and astrophysical.

Like reference mark: some dates

See also: Chronology of astronomy

pre-telescopic Observations.

-: first astronomical sites with Nabta Playa, Stonehenge, Carnac and Goseck,

927: date estimated manufacture from oldest the Astrolabe having arrived until our days.

1252 : end of the development of the Alphonsines tables (according to the king Alphonse X of Castille) by the largest astronomers of the time. They contain number of information on the movement of the stars but are still influenced mainly by religious ideas.

1420 : beginning of the construction of the observatory of Samarkand by the prince Ulugh Beg. This observatory will be active until in 1437 and will allow in particular to carry out a catalogs of more than 1000 stars, the first since most complete Ptolémée and until Tycho Brahé.

1471 : Johann Müller founds the observatory of Nuremberg.

1574 : Tycho Brahé undertakes in the small island of Venn (or Hveen) close to Copenhagen to the Denmark, Uraniborg the construction of the castle and observatory of Uraniborg (“Palate of Uranie” or “Palate of the Skies”), which can be regarded as the first Européen observatory. However, until the invention of the Telescope, all the observations take place with the naked eye.

1584 : Completion of the observatory of Uraniborg.

Telescopic astronomy
One improperly indicates in fact under this title the observation of the stars using optical instruments, which it is of Lunette S or Télescope S.

1609: Galileo develops the prototype of its Telescope (allowing to enlarge six times without deformation) and begins its work of observation of the Solar system

1672: Isaac Newton presents the first Télescope, i.e. a system of observation formed of mirrors, with the Royal Society of London. Its models are done everything out of polished metal.

1724 : The Râja Jai Singh II finishes the first of its five observatories to the monumental instruments with Delhi.

1774 : Ramsden develops the equatorial Monture. Henceforth the instruments of observation will be able to compensate for the rotation movement of the Earth, which will largely facilitate all work of observation.

1845 : Foucault and Fizeau obtains the first Daguerréotype representing the Sun. This date can thus be regarded as the starting point of the use of the photography in astronomy, for the first time of the observations can be directly preserved.

1846 : Johann Galle discovers the planet Neptune, while following the indications given by Urbain the Glassmaker

20th century
The configuration telescope definitively takes the step on the telescope, in the field of the large instruments, because of the problems of inflection which reveal too much aberrations.

1909 : Aymar of the Balsam Pluvinel is the first to photograph planetary surfaces (monochromatic light).

1917 : Startup of the telescope 2,54 meters in diameter of the Mount the Wilson, largest of the world at the time.

1928 : Humason puts its photographic and spectrometric methods at the service of work of Hubble on the distance from the galaxies.

1930 : Invention of the Coronographe by Bernard Lyot and application to the solar observations. This device makes it possible to occult the central part of an object and thus to observe only its circumference.

1930: Bernhard Schmidt constructs a prototype of telescope with large field.

1935 : Lyot carries out first film showing the movement of the solar protuberances.

1936 : invention of the electronic camera by Andre Lallemand.

1936: Grote Reber creates the first model of Radiotélescope.

1948 : Harold and Horace Babcock takes the first measurements of the solar magnetic field using a tape recorder which they themselves manufactured.

1948: startup of the telescope 5,08 meters in diameter of the Mount Palomar, then largest of the world.

1957 : the first artificial satellite of the history, Sputnik 1, is launched by the Soviet Union, posing the first stake of the future space telescopes.

1959 : the hidden side of the the Moon is observed for the first time by the Soviet probe Luna 3.

1960 : Kuiper publishes a photographic atlas of the Moon.

“Electronic Astronomy”

the Années 1960 see the massive development of the radio telescopes, which are appeared as immense metal antennas. They make it possible to be access to radiations wavelength about the millimetre and beyond.

Major advances of astrophysics are accomplished thanks to these telescopes: the discovery of the cosmological diffuse bottom, the Pulsar S and the Quasar S.

1970: the first satellite of observation in field X is launched Kenya. It has as a name Uhuru (what means freedom in Swahili). The mission will stop in 1973 and will have made it possible to carry out the first sweeping ( survey ) of the sky in X.

1972: the satellite of observation UV Copernicus is launched. It will be in operation until in 1981 and will have a very great influence on the knowledge of the physique of the interstellar environment. It will pose the bases of the future missions in field UV of the spectrum.

1976 :

brought into service of a telescope 6 meters in diameter at the observatory of Zelenchouk (the USSR). It is then largest of the world.

First attempts successful to observe the ultraviolet radiation, they make use of rockets of observation at the very limited lifespan but able to leave the terrestrial atmosphere.

1983 : generalized exploration of the remote infra-red with the satellite WILL GO (InfraRed Astronomical Satellite).

1986 : the first detailed study of a comet is carried out at the time of the passage of the Halley's Comet in the Terrestre vicinity. Five probes (of which the probe Européenne Giotto) approach it sufficiently to obtain the first images of its core.

1989 :

put into orbit of the space telescope Hipparcos, whose objective is the precise measurement of the positions and distances from very many sources. The publication, after the end of the mission in 1993, the two catalogs obtained will make it possible to redefine the structuring of the close universe.

generalization of technology CCC with regard to the detectors, and systematic abandonment of the photo plates which are less powerful.

1990 : placing in orbit of the Space telescope Hubble, first to be observed in the visible field (like in infra-red and ultra-violet), increasing largely the resolution being able to be obtained. It is always in service currently (2006).

1999 : launching by the Space shuttle Columbia of NASA. satellite Chandra is a Télescope with x-rays. Its name comes from that of the Indian Physicien Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, universally known to have evaluated the limiting mass necessary to the white dwarf to become neutron stars. In a way as happy as adequate, the term Sanskrit of Chandra means luminous (and the the Moon indicates).

See too

Related articles

pre-telescopic Astronomy

Astronomy

Archéoastronomie

Chronology of astronomy

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