History of Tunisia

The history of Tunisia is that of a country of the the Maghreb which forms today a independent State , officially called: Republic of Tunisia.

Prehistory

The first traces of human presence in Tunisia date from the Paléolithique.

With 20 kilometers in the east of Gafsa, the site Moustérien of El Guettar (old of more than: 40000 years) delivered a structure formed by a round heap of stones laid out in a cone of approximately 75 centimetres in height for a diameter of 130 centimetres. These round stones, in Calcareous or Flint, are sometimes worked. It are associated with animal Os sements of , Dent S and objects of flint cut moustériens as well as a pédonculée point Atérien. Mr. Gruet, the archeologist who discovered it, interprets this structure like a building carried out in offering with the close source, drained today, and translating a religious feeling or magic. It is known under the name of Hermaïon d' El Guettar , by reference to the stone heaps built in the Antiquité in relation to the worship of Hermes.

The Épipaléolithique is known in particular with the Capsien, which owes its name at the town of Gafsa.

With the Neolithic (4500 with 2500 front J. - C. approximately), the human presence is conditioned by the formation of the Saharan deserted which acquires its current climate.

In the same way, they is at that time that the settlement of Tunisia grows rich by the contribution by the Berbères, resulting seems it libyque migration of population (old Greek term indicating the African populations in general), as with the Sudan and the the Middle East, and perhaps even of the the Caucasus or the south of the Europe (Italy or Spain). In short, the question of the origins of the Berber people remains open. But its presence is attested as of 4000 before J. - C. the Berber term is resulting from the barbarian word used by the Greek to designate the foreigners with their civilization in a general way.

The Neolithic era, arrived tardily in this area, sees the contact being established between the Phéniciens of Tyr, the futures Carthaginois which founded the punic civilization whose center is Tunisia, and the people of Tunisia, whose Berber ones became the essential component. Thus, one observes the passage of the Préhistoire to the Histoire in Tunisia thanks to the contribution of the populations phenicians mainly (even if the Neolithic lifestyle continues a time to coexist at the sides of the new arrivals). However, this contribution is in particular moderate, amongst other things in Carthage (center of civilization punic phenician then in Occident), by the coexistence with Phéniciens of populations different, minority, but dynamic like the Berber ones, the Greeks, the Italians, Ibères of Spain, etc One will note within this framework many the Mariage S mixed contributing to the creation of punic civilization.

One finds also a hard copy of peaceful people of the Tunisian Neolithic era in the Odyssey , through the meeting between Ulysses and the Lotophages (eaters of lotus) which seem to live in the current island of Jerba.

Carthage and Rome

Foundation of Carthage

In 814 av. J. - C., colonists phenicians come from Tyr found the town of Carthage. According to the legend, it is the queen Élyssa (Didon among Romans), sister of Pygmalion, king de Tyr, who founds the city.

There exists a debate on the exactitude of the date given by the literary tradition, this one being fed by the archaeological discoveries .

But for the moment the date (that of the literary tradition) of 814 av J. - C. is retained.

Expansion of Carthage

One century and half after the foundation of the city, the Carthaginians extend their influence on the Western basin of the Mediterranean.

They are affirmed in Sicily, in Sardinia, with the Balearic Islands, in Spain and North Africa (of the Morocco to the Libya) which is shared between the Greeks of Cyrénaïque and Carthaginians (including on the Atlantic coast of Morocco).

This presence takes various forms, including that of the Colonisation, but it is initially commercial (counters of trade, treaties, etc). Moreover, the Carthaginians are based in these areas on old a phenician presence (except perhaps on the Atlantic coasts) going back to before creation from Carthage. Indeed, the new power of Carthage supplants that declining of the old cities of Phénicie in this space of the Mediterranean.

In the same way, they are combined with the Étrusques and their two joined together fleets leave victorious the naval battle of Aléria, with broad of the Corsica , against the Greeks of Massalia (ancient Marseilles). These Greeks, come from the coasts of current the Turkey (Ionie), try to settle in Corsica who is an island located opposite the Étrurie and in the north of Sardinia (zone of influence and punic colonization). This island is also on the shortest way and more indicated between the cities massaliotes and the other Greek cities of the south of the Italy then, further, with the Eastern Mediterranean.

Corsica is thereafter a kind of buffer zone between Massaliotes, the Carthaginians and the Etruscans. Indeed, Massaliotes keep their influence on the north of the Western Mediterranean, of the coasts north of Spain at the coasts of Provence. But with the Etruscan decline, Corsica enters the Carthaginian orbit. Thus, a commercial empire of the sea in this Mediterranean Occident is formed.

But its change towards a more terrestrial empire runs up against the Greeks of Sicily, then with the rising power of Rome and its allies (like Massaliotes, the Campanie NS or Italiotes). Indeed, the Carthaginian heart, Tunisia, the day before the Punic Wars has an agricultural soil higher than that of Rome and its joined together allies. This rich person soil, whose exploitation makes the admiration of the Romans, is besides one of the first agricultural zones of the Roman Empire.

Thus, in spite of this expansion (Sardinia is also in the course of colonization, the Spanish establishments consolidate itself, etc), this super power commercial, maritime, terrestrial and agricultural, which is on the way to overcome the Greeks in Sicily, exceeds in perenniality Etruscan civilization, butts then crumbles vis-a-vis the rising power which is Rome. The explanation of this fall is not yet fully included/understood. But punic civilization perdure a time under the Roman Empire by its language, its culture, its writing or its religion. Indeed, the capital - Carthage - is destroyed but the other Tunisian cities continue to remain. Moreover, Tunisia keeps its economic dynamism and remains one of the poles of agricultural, artisanal and commercial prosperity of the Roman Empire.

Lastly, among legacy made with world appears treaty of agronomy of punic Hannon (not that which left in forwarding along the Atlantic coasts Africa), translated into Latin, which best the is treated agricultural one of the Antiquité.

Wars against the Greeks

August 1st

Punic Wars

First Punic War

Second Punic War

Third Punic War

Province of Roman Africa

At the conclusion of the Third Punic War, Rome crushes Carthage definitively and is installed on the debris of the city in 146 av. J. - C.. The end of the Punic Wars marks the establishment of the Roman province of Africa. Utique becomes the first capital about it but the site of Carthage will be essential again by its advantages. In 44 before J. - C., Jules César decides to found a Roman colony there ( Colonia Julia Carthago ) but it is Auguste which launches truly work later a few decades. The city becomes later the capital of the province. It is then a boom where Africa becomes for Rome an essential supplier of Blé and of Huile. The famous circular port of Carthage is moulted in monumental home port of a cereal fleet whose arrival is each year impatiently awaited Rome. Another symbol of this richness is the amphitheater of Thysdrus which becomes one of largest Roman world. The province is covered with a dense network of romanized cities (whose vestiges are still visible today). Integral part of the Republic then of the Empire, with the Numidie, Tunisia becomes during six centuries the seat of a romano-African civilization.

Second town of Occident after Rome, Carthage counts at the 4th century a population exceeding 100.000 inhabitants. Large cosmopolitan port, where Religion S are rencontent come from Africa, of Egypt, Greece and the East, the city is in direct relationship with Rome but also with the economic centers of the East: Éphèse in minor Asia, Alexandria in Egypt or Antioche in Syria count among the most populated cities Empire. However Alexandria and Antioche are two important centers of evangelization. But they are especially the immigrants come from Italy to settle in these provinces as colonists, the tradesmen and the soldiers who will be the agents of the propagation of the Christianisme in Carthage.

While being established in the area, Christianity does not encounter only against the imperial edicts but initially a true popular opposition. Indeed, while being established among these populations, Christianity tears a very tight social fabric. The Paganism impregnating all the daily life, the Christians are led to live with the variation of the domestic life and the public life. The cohesion of the family and the city are thus threatened, which involves responses as the confusion of Christian tombs by these populations. As of the 2nd century, Carthage also applies imperial persecutions: those which refuse to adopt the official worship are tortured, relegated on islands, decapitated, delivered to the wild animals, burned even crucifiés. Thus, the July 17th 180, five Christians and seven Christian women appear before the court of the governor. Having refused to give up their belief, they are led to the torment and are decapitated. But, in spite of this difficult situation, the new faith is established much more quickly than in Europe in particular because of the social role of the Église which appears in second half of the 3rd century. It is starting from 400 approximately that, under the dynamic action of Augustin d' Hippone and the impulse of some bishops, the land great landowners and the town Aristocratie adopt the Catholicisme, where they see their interest, the Church integrating the various social layers then.

The Church of Africa being established gradually, Carthage becomes, at the 4th century, one of the largest spiritual capitals of Occident: Tertullien, holy Cyprien or holy Aurèle of it is originating and the Donatisme, schismatic doctrines then declared heretic, takes his rise between 4th and the 5th century. The conflict which will oppose it to the official religious authority will impregnate the Roman Africa during several generations.

Late antiquity

Domination vandal

In 429, carried out by their chief Genséric, the Vandals and the Alains cross the Straits of Gibraltar. 10 years later, after being itself returned Masters of Hippone, they enter Carthage where they install to them kingdom for nearly one century. The latter are followers of the Arianisme (declared heresy with the Concile of Nicée), which does not facilitate the relations between them and the notable buildings mainly catholic. The African Clergé opposes an absolute refusal indeed to be subjected to those which represent in its eyes a double evil: barbarian domination of the S and that of the heretics. However the Vandals require population a total allegiance to be able to them and with their faith. The king names itself the high clergy and control the Church arienne directed by the patriarch of Carthage. Consequently, since they try are opposed to the capacity vandal, the catholics are persecuted: many men of the church are martyrisés, imprisoned to see Exil are in camps in the south of Gafsa. To the economic plan, the Vandals apply to the Church the same policy of confiscation whose the great landowners have to suffer. The fields with their slaves are allotted to the new Masters or for the benefit of the clergy arien. This policy worsens when Hunéric succeeds his/her father. It starts initially a bloody persecution against the Manicheans then prohibited with all those which do not adhere to the official Church to occupy any function in the public administrations. Died of Hunéric, its nephews Gunthamund and Thrasamund succeed and continue the policy of “arianisation to him”. The catholic clergy is crushed taxes and fines and Thrasamund condemns 120 bishops to the exile.

However, the Latin Culture is largely preserved and prosperous Christianity as long as he is not opposed to the sovereign in place. The Vandals themselves, become the Masters of the the Roman Province richest of the Empire, let themselves go to softness food of Tunisia. The recruitment of their Armée suffers from it so much so that they prefer to enlist autochtones Berbères (romanized for the majority). Their territory, enclosed by Berber principalities, is attacked by the wandering tribes of camel drivers: their defeat in front of these last, in 530, provides to the Byzantine emperor Justinien the occasion to seize the territory. Indeed, the primary goal of this last is the control of the Western Mediterranean to reconstitute the Roman Empire.

Byzantine period

Carthage is easily taken again in September 533 by the Byzantine directed by the Général Bélisaire sent by the emperor Justinien. The Byzantine army, made up in fact of Mercenary S Hérules and Huns, smashes the Cavalerie vandal formerly so much dreaded and the last king, Gélimer, go in March 534. The major part of the people vandal is off-set towards the Orient, being useful as slaves while others are enlisted of liking or force in the Byzantine army like auxiliary soldiers, and the restored Roman administration.

At the time of the Council of 534, the bishop of Carthage joins together one 220 bishops to examine the problems arising from a completely unexpected situation: the Byzantine capacity wants to make bishops of simple executants. Indeed, the African bishops point out that if the emperor must make apply the guns of the Church, it does not have to fix them. Justinien reacts highly: corporal punishments and exile strike the refractories, most recalcitrant being replaced by men with the devotion of the prince. The Church of Africa east thus put at the step. Justinien then makes of Carthage the seat of sound Diocèse of Africa. At the end of the 6th century, the area is placed under the authority of a exarque cumulating the capacities civil and military and having a broad autonomy with respect to the emperor.

However, following the crisis monothelist, the Byzantine emperors, opposed to the local Church, are diverted city. However, vis-a-vis Byzantine Africa being inserted in stagnation, an insurrectionary situation agitates confederations of sedentary tribes made up in principalities. Installed in a dearly acquired independence, these Berber tribes are all the more hostile to the civils servant of Byzance which they have conscience of their own force. As for the people, subjected to the new administration, pressed by the Tax department and delivered to the exactions of the governors, he quickly comes from there to regret the time of the Vandals.

The Middle Ages arabo-Moslem

Arab invasions

3 forwardings are necessary so that the Arab succeed in conquering Tunisia. In this context, the conversion of the tribes is not held uniformly and knows resistances, specific Apostasie S or the adoption of Syncrétisme S. the Arabisation will still be done in a slower way.

The first forwarding is launched in 647. The exarque Gregoire is beaten with Sbeïtla, which shows the existence of weak points at the Byzantines. In 661, the one second forwarding is launched and ends in the catch of Bizerte. The third, carried out in 670 by Oqba Ibn Nafaa, is decisive: Ibn Nafaa founds the town of Kairouan during the same year and the city becomes the center of the forwardings launched against the north and the west of the Maghreb. The complete invasion failed to fail with the assassination of Ibn Nafaa in 683. A chief Moor, Koceila, takes again Kairouan thus. Sent in 693 with a powerful Arab army, Hassan ibn Noôman succeeds in overcoming the exarque one and taking Carthage in 695. Only resist certain Berber directed by the Kahena. The Byzantines, benefitting from their naval superiority, unload an army which seizes Carthage in 696 while Kahena gains successes against the Arabs. The latter, at the price of a new effort, end however by taking again Carthage in definitively 698 and up overcoming and killing Kahena. Carthage is gradually abandoned with the profit of a new very close port, Tunis, and the Moslems, strong active in the Western Mediterranean, begin with razzier the Italian Sicily and coasts.

Contrary to the preceding invaders, the Arabs are not satisfied to occupy the coast and undertake to conquer the interior of the country. After having resisted, the Berber ones convert with the religion of their new conquerors through their recruitment in the rows of the victorious army. Training centres nun are then organized, as in Kairouan, within new the Ribat S. One could not however estimate the amplitude of this movement of adhesion with Islam. Moreover, refusing the assimilation, they are numerous to reject the dominant religion and to adhere to the Kharidjisme, heresy born in the East and proclaiming the equality of all the Moslems without reference to races nor of classes. In 745, the Berber kharidjites seize Kairouan besides. The area remains a province omeyyade until in 750.

Aghlabides

In 800, the Caliph Haroun rear-Rachid delegates her power in Ifriqiya to the emir Ibrahim ibn Al-Aghlab which establishes the Dynastie Aghlabides which reigns there during 100 years. Tunisia becomes an important cultural hearth with the radiation of Kairouan. Aghlabides obtain important a Flotte of combat to draw aside the danger coming from the sea.

Fatimides and Zirides

In December 909, Abu Abd Allah Al-Husayn Al-Shi' I, helped by the Berber ones which refuse the domination aghlabide, states to go down from Fatima Zahra (girl of Mahomet), proclaims chief and Imam of Tunisia and founds the dynasty Shiite Fatimides. The latter consequently declare like usurpers the Caliph S omeyyades and Abbassides rejoined with the Sunnisme. In 921, the town of Mahdia is founded and proclaimed capital of the caliphate fatimide. The third caliph, Ismâ `it Al-Mansûr, transfers the capital fatimide to Kairouan and seizes Sicily in 948. When Fatimides move their base in Egypt in 972, the Zirides take little by little their independence with respect to those. Installed in Kairouan then with Mahdia, the rupture with Fatimides intervenes in 1048 on the initiative of the sovereign who then receives from the Abbasid caliph the title of “commander of the believers to the government of all Maghreb”. While breaking with its suzerain fatimide, it thus inaugurates the era of the emancipation of the Berber ones. In reprisals, Fatimides send wandering tribes of Egypt, cash several hundreds of thousands of members, the Hilaliens, to invade the area. Kairouan, however strengthened, resists during five years but ends up being occupied. The shops are plundered, the shot down public edifices and the ransacked houses. This wandering “invasion” is however characterized by a diffuse integration whole families, breaking traditional balance between Berbères nomads and sedentaries. It follows quite naturally an interbreeding of the population. However, the political crumbling of Ifriqiya, consequence of the disappearance of Zirides, plunges the country in anarchy.

Almohades

Like Mahdia and the other towns of Ifriqiya, Tunis ends up falling to the hands from the sultan almohade Abd Al-Mumin during its forwarding which installs north of the Morocco in 1159.

Starting from the first third of the 12th century, Tunisia is regularly attacked by the Normands of Sicily and the south of the Italy (Royaume normanno-sicilian). In 1135, the Norman king Roger II seizes Jerba. In 1148, it is Mahdia, Sousse and Sfax which falls to the hands from the Norman ones. However, they will be gradually driven out and Mahdia, their last fortified town, is taken again by Almohades Morrocans only in January 1160. In same time the unification of the Maghreb takes place. The economy becomes flourishing and of the commercial relations are established with the main cities of the Mediterranean circumference (Pisa, Genoa, Marseilles, Venice and certain towns of Spain). Rise also touches the cultural field with works of the large historian and father of sociology Ibn Khaldoun.

Hafsides

Almohades entrust Tunisia to Abd Al-Wâhid ibn Hafs but his/her son Abû Zakariyâ' Yahyâ separates from them in 1228 and founds the news Dynastie Hafsides. It reigns during three centuries and becomes completely independent as of 1236. The XV {{E}} and XVI {{E}} centuries see the arrival of the Moslem Moors and Jewish Andalusian driven out of Spain by the Reconquête (or Reconquista ).

At the beginning of XVIe century, the Maghreb passes through a major political crisis which allows the emergence of principalities and on independent harbor cities which start again the activity of the Corsaire S. the sovereigns of Spain, Ferdinand d' Aragon and Isabelle de Castille, to protect their coasts, decide to continue the reconquest until on the Maghrebian coasts. In ten years, they conquer several places: Seas el Kébir, Oran, Candle, Tripoli and the small island located opposite Algiers. To release itself some, the authorities of Algiers request the assistance of two famous corsairs: the brothers Arudj and Khayr AD-DIN Barberousse. This intervention is an major event which marks the one period beginning of confrontation between Spain and the Ottoman Empire for the domination of the territories of the Maghreb and that of the Western basin of the Mediterranean.

Towards the Othoman domination

In 1534, Khayr AD-DIN Barberousse seizes Tunis but is obliged to flee after the taken city by the Spaniards of Charles Quint. The Othoman government then decides to finally obtain the fleet which it misses. In 1560, Dragut takes Jerba and, 35 years later, Tunis is definitively taken again by the Othomans. In 1575, Tunisia becomes a province of the empire but the governors live cut off in the ports, the Bedouin being delivered to themselves. The conquest of the interior is really completed only by Ali I Bey and Hammouda Bey. Tunis, but also Algiers and Tripoli, become consequently for the Christians “regencies Barbaresque S”.

The 17th century sees a progressive emancipation of regencies with respect to the Othoman supervision because, the Othomans being very few in the Maghreb, their role does not cease decreasing with the profit of the natives. At the end of a few years of Turkish administration (1590), the 4000 Janissaire S of Tunis rise and place at the report heading a dey, and his order, a bey in charge of the control of the territory and collection of the taxes. Quickly, this last becomes the main character of regency at the sides of the pasha, which is confined in the honorary role of representative of the Othoman sultan, so much so that a dynasty beylicale is founded by Mourad Ier in 1612. During the same period, the activities of the corsairs know their paroxysm because increasing autonomy with respect to the sultan involves a fall of his financial support and regencies must thus increase the number of their catches on sea in order to survive.

Othoman period

Setting under supervision

In 1705 takes place the foundation of the dynasty of the Husseinites.

Though always officially a province of the Ottoman Empire, Tunisia acquires a great autonomy at the 19th century. At that time, the country saw deep reforms, like the Abolition of slavery, the adoption in 1861 of a constitution - the first of the Arab world - and even misses becoming an independent republic.

Unfortunately, because of the ruinous policy of the beys and of foreign interferences in the economy, the country knows serious financial problems which force to declare the bankruptcy in 1869. It is the occasion for the European great powers to put foot in the country which is the subject of competitions between the France, the Italy and the the United Kingdom.

Tunisia starts hardly its turn towards the independence which it falls down under the yoke of another foreign power. It is France which succeeds in imposing to the bey a protectorate, with the great anger of Italy which sees Tunisia like its reserved domain.

French protectorate

Under the pretext of an incident, the French troops penetrate in Tunisia by the French Algérie and, in three weeks, arrive without fighting in Tunis. The May 12th 1881, protectorate is officialized by the signature by Sadok Bey of the Traité of Bardo with the palate of Ksar Saïd. France is not long in misusing its rights and prerogatives of guard to exploit the country like a colony, by forcing the Bey de Tunis to give up the near total of its capacities to the Résident general of France in Tunisia which represents the interests of France.

But the fight against the French occupation starts at the beginning of the 20th century with the party of the Jeunes Tunisians founded by Béchir Sfar, Ali Bach Hamba and Abdeljelil Zaouche. This party prepared the birth, a few years later, of the Destour. Entered in conflict with the mode of protectorate, Destour exposes, as of the official proclamation of its creation the June 3rd 1920, its famous program in eight points.

In 1932, Bourguiba founds with Tahar Sfar, Mahmoud Materi and Bahri Guiga the newspaper the Tunisian Action , which, in addition to independence, preaches the Laïcité. This original position within Destour led in 1934 to its scission in two branches, one Islamizing which preserve the name Destour , and the other modernistic one, the Néo-Destour. In 1938, Habib Bourguiba is imprisoned in France for conspiracy against the state security.

In 1940, the Mode of Vichy the book with the Italy at the request of Benito Mussolini, which hopes to use it to weaken the French Résistance in North Africa. However Bourguiba does not want to guarantee fascistic modes and launches the August 8th 1942 a call for the support for the allied troops, position which is worth to him to be at once stopped by the Nazis, but which will be at the origin of its handing-over in freedom in April 1944.

Tunisia is the theater of known military big operations under the name of Campagne of Tunisia (1942 - 1943): German troops give an opinion in Tunisia as of the launching of the Opération Torch (unloading in North Africa) by the allies the November 8th 1942. The Afrika Korps of the general Rommel folds up Libya behind the Ligne Mareth. After several months of engagements and a German counter-offensive armor-plated in the area of Kasserine and Sbeïtla with the beginning of the year 1943, the German troops are forced to capitulate the May 11th in the Cape Bon, four days after the arrival of the allied troops with Tunis.

Negotiations are carried out after the war with the French government, but their failure and the arrest of Bourguiba and its companions cause, the January 18th 1952, the beginning of the armed revolt and a hardening of the positions of each camp This difficult situation is alleviated by the recognition of the internal autonomy of Tunisia conceded by Pierre Mendès France.

The June 3rd 1955, free-Tunisian conventions are signed and envisage the tranfert with the Tunisian government of all competences except for those of the foreign affairs and defense. In spite of the opposition of Salah Ben Youssef, which will be excluded from the party, conventions are approved by the congress of Néo-Destour held with Sfax the November 15th. However, after new negotiations, France ends up conceding in Tunisia total independence the March 20th 1956 (although France preserves military base Bizerte). Less than one month later the constituent National Assembly is elected and Néo-Destour gains all the seats. Bourguiba becomes president about it.

Modern Tunisia

References

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