The Peru becomes officially a country after the declaration of independence of the July 28th 1821. Nevertheless, the history of the country is influenced by the various populations which followed one another there front. This article thus treats history of the populations which lived on the current Peruvian territory.

The history précolombienne, i.e. before the arrival of the European colonizers, is generally divided into four parts: antiquated, formative, regional and imperial. For evoking these various periods, it is necessary to describe the paleolithic period.

The paléo-American period

The first traces of human presence to the Peru go back at least 20.000 years before our era, but very few vestiges of this time are preserved. It is necessary to await the paléo-American period (Paléolithique), which begins 15.000 years before our era (that is to say 19 thousand years after the crossing of the Bering Strait) to find vestiges. The populations are then for the majority nomads, live Chasse and Cueillette and shelters in caves. The oldest vestiges are discovered in the cave Pikimachay and would go back to 17.650 before our era. However, some refute the idea that these stones were cut by the human ones. Other paleolithic vestiges are found with Lauricocha, Chillón- Ancón, Toquepala, El Guitarrero, Telermachay, Panalauca and Tres Ventanas.

The antiquated period (- 7600 - -2600)

After the progressive retreat of the Glacier S, the populations begin a slow process of domestication and sedentarisation. This movement is accelerated by the stabilization of the climate which became that Peru knows still today.

The formative period (- 2700 - -200)

During the formative period, the first villages and political organizations appear. They allow the appearance of theocratic States. The first theocratic State is the State of Caral. After the formative era appears the first cultural horizon thanks to the birth of the culture of Chavin, whose civilization - primarily localized along the littoral of the Pacific Ocean - extends on nearly eight centuries, of 1000 with 200 av. J. - C..

The period of regional development (- 200 - 900)

The period of regional development , also called traditional period , begins with the decline from the culture and cosmogony from Chavín. This period is also characterized by a local insulation: each area shelters small political entities which adopt their own development models cultural. They open their borders only with the commercial exchanges. The following table chronologically gathers the various cultures, since the previous period (Chavin) until the next period (Chimu and INCA) to make it possible to locate the various cultures of the traditional period :

The imperial period (900-1532)

See also: Incas

The imperial period , also called postclassic or Reign of the belligerents , succeeds the decline of civilization Huari. Divers States local which tries to dominate their neighbors politically appears. Among these States, we find the culture Chimú, the Culture Chanca, the Culture Chincha and finally, most famous, the culture INCA. Incas were a warlike tribe of the south of the sierra. They move little by little towards the north of the area to the fertile valley of Cuzco between 1100 and 1300. Their expansion begins in 1438, with Pachacutec, which undertakes to conquer the close grounds.

During the 70 last years of this period, the kingdom of Cuzco form an empire which extends on the Andes. It is about the empire INCA. At the end of the 15th century, the INCA Pachacutec (1438 - 1471) transmits the capacity to his/her son Tupac Yupanqui († 1493), who extends the Empire to the current Ecuadorian territory . Under the reign of his/her son, Huayna Capac († 1527), the borders of the INCA Empire are pushed back to the border of current the Colombia. A war of succession bursts between two wire of Huayna Capac, Huascar and Atahualpa. This last managed to beat the troops of his/her brother, at the moment when the Conquistadores arrive at Peru.

The conquest and viceroyalty

When the troops of Francisco Pizarro arrived in 1531, the territory of current Peru was the center of the civilization INCA whose capital was with Cuzco. The INCA domination extended from the north of the Ecuador in the east of the Chile. Pizarro wanted to grow rich and benefitted from the weakening of the INCA empire because of a Civil war. The November 16th 1532, during the battle of Cajamarca, Pizarro captured the emperor INCA Atahualpa and made it carry out. The Conquistador be fought between them.

The Spanish instituted the system of the Encomienda : the autochtones were to pay a tribute, of which a part went to Seville and the Spaniards were charged to christianize them. As a governor of Peru, Pizarro misused the encomienda while granting to its soldiers and companions a capacity quasi unlimited on the Amerindians who were obliged to deal of the cattle and the plantations of their new lords from Europe. The attempts at resistance were severely punished, which gave rise to the black Légende .

In 1541, Pizarro was assassinated by a faction carried out by Diego de Almagro, called el Mozo. A new civil war burst. In 1542, the following year the Vice-royauté of Peru was instituted to manage the major part of the South America. In 1717, the viceroyalty of Grenade was formed: it gathered the Colombia, the Ecuador, the Panama and the Venezuela. In 1776, a new viceroyalty was born, the viceroyalty of Río of Plata: it gathered the Argentine, the Bolivia, the Paraguay and the Uruguay.

In 1544, the Spain to react to the internal conflicts which followed the assassination of Pizarro, sent Blasco Núñez Vela as a first viceroy. It will be in its turn killed by Gonzalo Pizarro, the brother of first Pizarro. Finally, a new viceroy, Pedro of Gasca managed to restore the order and carried out Gonzalo Pizarro after his capture.

The census under the last Quipucamayoc indicated that there was 12 million inhabitants in the empire INCA. 45 years later, the census of the Toledo viceroy, showed that there was nothing any more but 1,1 million natives. The Incas cities accepted catholic names and were rebuilt according to the Spanish model. They comprised a central place ( plaza ) and a church or Cathédrale opposite an official building. Some cities, such Cuzco kept their foundations of INCA origin. Certain sites incas, such Huánuco Viejo were abandoned with the profit of cities at lower altitude.

After the establishment of the viceroyalty of Peru, the Gold and the money coming from the the Andes enrich the Conquistador S. the Peru became one of the first sources of the richness for the Spain. The town of Lima founded by Pizarro, the January 18th, 1535 under the name of Ciudad of los Reyes (" the city of the rois"), became the capital of the viceroyalty and a powerful city which had under its jurisdiction all the South America except for the Brésil dominated by the Portuguese. All the colonial richnesses passed by Lima, then by the Isthme of Panama before arriving at Seville, in Spain. At the local level, the encomenderos were under the authority of the curacas . A hierarchical pyramid thus made it possible to control all the cities and villages. At the 18th century, Lima sheltered a Université and was the principal fortified town of Spain on the American continent.

During the viceroyalty, Incas were not completely eliminated. For example, fourteen great revolts burst only at the 18th century. Among those, let us quote that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742 and that of Tupac Amaru in 1780.

The Republic

The movement of emancipation of the colony began with rising from the landowners of Spanish origin. Argentinian the Jose de San Martín and the Venezuelan Simón Bolívar were with the head of the rebellious troops. After having unloaded in bay of Paracas with an army made up mainly of Argentinian Chile ens and , San Martín seizes Lima and declares, the July 28th 1821, the independence of the Peru with respect to the Spain.

The emancipation, i.e. stamping for the land great landowners of the authority of the Spanish crown, became effective in December 1824, when the general Antonio Jose de Sucre beat the Spaniards in the Bataille of Ayacucho. After the victory of Sugar in Ayacucho (December 9th, 1824), a scission separated the country in high Peru remained faithful to Bolivar which taken the name of Bolivia and low Peru, with few things close current Peru.

In spite of the domination of an oligarchy of landowners, the Slavery of the blacks and the tribute of the Indians were abolished by the dictatorship of Ramón Castilla (1845 - 1851 and 1855 - 1862). The political life was a succession of coups d'etat and dictatorships.

Spain did not give up completely and still made vain attempts as at the time of the Bataille of Callao. She recognized finally the independence of Peru in 1879.

After the recognition of independence, the Peru led to the sides of the Bolivia the Guerre of the Pacific. This conflict opposed it to the Chile and made him lose the provinces of Tacna and Arica in the area of Tarapacá (treated Ancón of October 20th, 1883). The province of Tacna was restored in Peru in 1929 what put an end to different between Chile and Peru. The territorial conflicts did not cease therefore, as military confrontations of 1941 and 1981 attest it.

XX^e century

The constitution of 1933 held the right to vote with the taught reading and writing citizens; who in 1960, represented yet only one the third of the adult population. The Indians, almost half of the population, remained excluded and lived in a miserable way. The American revolutionary popular Alliance (Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana) founded by Víctor Raúl Haya of Torre in 1924 was established quickly and was put out the law in 1933 by Oscar R. Benavides which remained president until in 1939. A war opposed the Peru and the Ecuador between the July 5th and the July 31st 1941. During this war, Peru occupied the Western provinces of Loja and el Oro. The the United States, the Brazil, the Argentinian and the Chile proposed their mediation and the protocol was finally signed. Nevertheless, a new conflict will burst between the two countries one half-century later.

Little time after the United States, Peru declared the war in Germany, in spite of the congratulations addressed by Hitler for the few Peruvian parachutists having taken an Ecuadorian port.

Again authorized in 1945, American revolutionary popular Alliance supported the president Jose Luis Bustamante there Rivero (1945/48) who, reversed by the military coup d'etat of the general Manuel A. Odría of October 1948, forecast beginning of a dictatorship.

The October 3rd 1968, the coup d'etat reformist carried out by a group of officers directed by the general Juan Velasco Alvarado brings the army to the capacity with an aim of applying doctrines of “social progress and integral development”, nationalist and reformist, influenced by the theses of CEPAL to the dependence and the underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco carries out the nationalization of the International petroleum corporation (IPC), the North-American company which exploited Peruvian oil, then lance a reform of the apparatus of State, a land reform putting an end to the latifundios and exproprie of foreign great landowners. Peru wishes to free itself from any dependence and follows a foreign policy clearly third-mondiste.

In 1980 Fernando Belaúnde Terry, previously reversed by the coup d'etat of the general Juan Velasco Alvarado found the capacity by gaining the presidential election.

Alan García Pérez, candidate of the party American revolutionary popular Alliance, succeeded to him the July 28th 1985. It was the first time that a democratically elected president replaced another president democratically elected in 40 years. The measurements taken by Alan García Pérez in economy led to a Hyperinflation of 1000% between 1988 and 1990.

In 1990, the Peruvians were anxious terrorist attacks of the luminous Sentier and corruption scandals, the voters chose thus Alberto Fujimori, a mathematician relatively little known reconverted into the policy.

To fight against the Inflation, Fujimori adopted very severe austerity measures. He managed to make pass the inflation of 7 650% in 1990 to 139% in 1991. Because of the opposition of the deputies to these reforms, it dissolves the April 4th 1992 the Congress and modified the constitution. It organized then legislative elections, engaged of the economic reforms: privatisant of many state enterprises, initiating a more favorable climate of investment and a better management. On the other hand, its presidency was strongly marked by authoritarianism.

A new war bursts between Ecuador and Peru. In 1960, the Ecuadorian president Jose María Velasco Ibarra had declared no one the protocol of Rio, but the war will take place later only a few decades between the January 26th and February 28th 1995.

Alberto Fujimori was made re-elect in 1995. But in November 2000, relieved for corruption, it flees with the Japan. Valentín Paniagua Corazao was named to replace it temporarily and of the elections were organized in April 2001. Alejandro Toledo Manrique gained them and became President the July 28th 2001.

XXIe century

In particular because of scandals, president Toledo was constrained to proceed to rehandlings of cabinets. Moreover, Toledo was to be combined with other parties to have the majority. In May 2003, Toledo declared the State of emergency, suspended certain civil laws and granted capacities to the soldiers to restore the order in the 12 areas after strikes carried out by teachers and farmers. Thereafter, the State of emergency was softened and limited itself only to some areas where acted the luminous Path.

Presidential elections were organized the April 9th 2006. The second round opposed Ollanta Humala party Por el Perú (“For Peru”) and the former president Alan Garcia of the party aprist. The second round was held in June. Alan García gained the victory with 52% of the voices and took its functions the July 28th 2006.

References

See too

• INCA Garcilaso of Vega

• List of the viceroys of Peru
• List of the presidents of Peru
• Chronology of civilizations pre-Incas
• Viceroyalty of Peru
• Guerilla

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