History of Indonesia

The Republic of Indonesia ( Republik Indonesia ) is born on August 17th, 1945 with the proclamation from the independence of the the Indies Dutchwomen by Soekarno and Hatta.

Prehistory

Approximately 21.000 years ago, the New Guinea was connected to the Australia, forming the continental mass called Sahul . Australia had been populated at least 40.000 years ago by migrations from the current continent of Asia. One found, in the Grande Cave of Niah to the Sarawak a human cranium which one went back to 40.000 years. These migrations had been possible because at the time, the sea level was lower than currently, and the Australian continent was then connected to the continent of Asia. Migrations could also have taken place directly of Asia towards New Guinea and the the Solomon Islands.

There are 5.000 to 6.000 years, the sea level went up to reach the current location, cutting these populations of the continent of Asia and preventing other migrations for a certain time.

There is 5  000 years (3  000 front J. - C), of the inhabitants of the littoral of the China of the South, farmers of millet and rice, start to cross the strait to settle in Taiwan. Towards 2  000 before J. - C., of the migrations take place of Taiwan towards the Filipino . New migrations start soon of Philippines towards Célèbes and Timor and from there, the other islands of the archipelago Indonesia N. Towards 1  500 av. J. - C., another movement carries out Filipino in New Guinea and beyond that, the islands of the Pacifique. The Austronésiens are undoubtedly the first large navigators of the history of humanity. (see also: Settlement of the insular Southeast Asia)

Excavations delivered many objects of bronze whose technique and decoration show an influence of the civilization of Dong Its of Vietnam (S front J. - C.).

The entry in the history

The Indian epopee of the Ramayana, written between and the 3rd century after J. - C., mentions the names of Suvarnadvipa , " the island of the or" , which undoubtedly indicates Sumatra, and of Yavadvipa , " the island of the millet" , i.e. Java.

With after J. - C., the west of the archipelago indonésien belongs to a network centered on the kingdom of the Insane-nan in the south of current the Vietnam, of harbor city-States which trades with India and China. An interpretation of the Natural history of Pline Old the (23-79 after J. - C.) suggests that boats with beams " indonésiens" came to trade on the east coast of Africa. Ptolémée (towards 90-168 after J. - C.) mentions in the geography the names of “Iabadiou”, i.e. Java, and “Malaiou”, i.e. Malayu in the east of Sumatra.

Excavations carried out in the mouth of the Musi river, downstream from Palembang in the south of Sumatra, in the neighborhoods of 2000 revealed the existence of two harbor sites which would date from after J. - C. the objects that one found there testify to commercial relations with China and India.

The oldest written documents found to date in Indonesia are inscriptions coming from the area of Kutai in the province of Kalimantan Is. Written in alphabet Pallava of the south of India, they are reproduced on four sacrificial stone posts (called yupa in Sanscrit, the language of the crowned texts of the Hindouisme), which one estimates to date from the surroundings of 400 after Jesus-Christ.

In the area of Karawang in the east of Jakarta, one found inscriptions also written in Sanscrit and writing pallava. They date from the 5th century after Jesus-Christ and attest existence of a king of the name of Purnawarman, from which the kingdom, Tarumanagara, extended in this area.

An inscription gone back to 683 after J. - C., discovered on the island of Bangka beside Sumatra, proclaims that the sovereign of Sriwijaya, with the head of 20  000 soldiers, embarked has edge of 1  300 vessels. Texts Arab S and Chinese confirm that Sriwijaya was a powerful State which controlled the Détroit of Malacca, at the time already an important sea route. The city-State of Sriwijaya was with the site of current Palembang.

An inscription found with Canggal in the center of Java, and gone back to 732 after J. - C., announces that Sanjaya, lord of Mataram, set up a monument to honor Shiva. The inscription known as “of Kalasan”, also discovered in the center of Java and gone back to 778, mentions a king Sailendra who observes the Buddhist rites. The temples of the center of Java, built between the S, are of Buddhist rite like Borobudur or shivaite like Prambanan, but present sometimes elements of the two rites, which coexisted.

Javanese inscriptions and Arab texts show that with the S Java, and without doubts of other parts of current Indonesia, maintained the commercial exchanges with the east coast of Africa. The inscription of Kancana in particular, found in Java East and gone back to 860 after J. - C., mentions, in a list of dependant people, the word jenggi , " zeng". An Arab work, the Wonders of India , brings back the testimony of a merchant of the name of Ibn Lakis which in 945, sees arriving on the coast of Mozambique " a thousand of embarkations" gone up by Waqwaq which come from islands “located opposite China” to seek it products and slaves zeng . In Arabic, Zeng or Zenj indicates at the time the inhabitants of the east coast of Africa.

For causes still badly elucidated, one does not find any more an inscription in the center of Java starting from the end of the 10th century. An inscription of the east of Java gone back to 1041 known as that the king Airlangga installed his palate with Janggala, in the area of current the Surabaya. After its death, the center of the capacity remains in the east of Java, passing to Kediri, Singasari and finally to the kingdom of Majapahit, which reaches its apogee under Hayam Wuruk (which reigns of 1350 to 1389), assisted of its Prime Minister Gajah Mada. The Nagarakertagama , poem epic writes in 1365 under its reign, draws up a list of the " regions tributaires" of Majapahit, which in addition to Madura, Sunda and Bali, goes from Pahang on the Malayan Péninsule to " Gurun" in the Moluques, while passing by Malayu with Sumatra and " Bakulapura" with Borneo. Actually, the territory really controlled by Majapahit was limited to the western half of Java East, other half constituting the principality of Blambangan. After the death of Hayam Wuruk, quarrels of succession involve the decline of Majapahit, which disappears in 1478.

About 1400, a Buddhist prince of Palembang (southern of Sumatra) bases the port of Malacca on the Malayan peninsula. The sovereigns of Malacca convert soon with the Islam. The Chinese Lord High Admiral Zheng He (or Cheng Ho), which will carry out seven forwardings towards the India, the the Middle East and the East Africa between 1405 and 1433, makes several times stopover in Java. Moslem, Zheng He note the presence of Moslem Chinese communities in the ports of the northern coast of Java, which one calls the Pesisir . At the end of the 15th century, a Moslem Chinese of the name of Cek KB-Po bases on the Pesisir a principality which will become the kingdom of Demak. This new power undertakes the conquest of the northern coast of Java, then of Java East in 1527. The expansion of the maritime trade of, the rise of the Chinese communities and the diffusion of the Islam result in the urban development of the Pesisir and the emergence of the harbor States of the archipelago.

In March 1945, whereas the Americans take again control of the Pacific gradually, the Japanese encourage the creation of a " committee for the investigation on the efforts of preparation of the independence of Indonésie" ( Dokuritsu Junbi Chôsakai ). Under their aegis, the Piagam Jakarta (" charter of Jakarta") - preamble to the future constitution - is written and a " Committee side-indonésien to prepare the indépendance" set up.

Japan capitulates on August 15th. While waiting for the unloading of allied troops, the Japanese authorities of occupation, which had promised independence in Indonésiens before, had from now on order to maintain the Status quo . Soekarno and Hatta did not wish a conflict with the Japanese. The youth movements required an immediate declaration of independence. They were supported by Sjahrir, another nationalist leader indonésien, which had directed the passive resistance against the Japanese occupation and feared that the Allies do not consider that independence was only one gift of the Japanese. The night from August 15th to 16th, a group of young militants removes Soekarno and Hatta to convince them to proclaim independence.

The independence of Indonesia is proclaimed the August 17th 1945 by Soekarno and Hatta. Soekarno is named president and Hatta vice-president. It is the beginning of the period which Indonésiens call Revolusi .

The Allies start to take again control of the territory mid-September. In October, of the British troops unload with Surabaya to disarm the Japanese soldiers. Believer that the British prepare the return of the Dutchmen, the very young army indonésienne opposes them. In front of the violence of the engagements to take the city, the British understand that something changed in the old Indies Dutchwomen.

The first 20 years of independence

The Revolusi

At the end of 1945, the Dutchmen agree to start discussions with the government indonésien. They re-occupy nevertheless Jakarta at the beginning of 1946, forcing the government indonésien to settle with Yogyakarta. To try to take again the control of their old colony, they launch a first “actuated of police force”, called agresi by Indonésiens. At the end of 1946, the belligerents meet in Linggarjati close to Cirebon. The Dutchmen recognize sovereignty de facto of the Republic on Java, Madura and Sumatra. The two parts agree to create in 1949 a “République of the United States of Indonesia” ( Republik Indonesia Serikat ).

In December 1946, the Dutchmen announce with Denpasar with Bali the creation of a Negara Indonesia Timur (“State of Eastern Indonesia”). In front of the difficulty of making admit their federal project, the Dutchmen launch in July 1947 a second “action of police force”. At the end of ten days, they must accept a call to the cease-fire of the the United Nations. In January 1948, an agreement is signed between the two parts aboard the American cruiser US Renville, which endorses the Dutch project of a Federal state in Indonesia. PNI (Partai Nasional Indonesia) and the Moslem party Masyumi are opposed to it. The government indonésien, directed by Amir Sjarifuddin, is constrained to resign.

The Dutchmen continue nevertheless their federal project and announce the creation of a series of States Fantoche S in various places of the archipelago, 15 in 1948. In 1949, republicans and Dutchmen hold a conference with Yogyakarta. The “republic of the United States of Indonesia” (RUSI in its English initials) is created on December 14th. December 27th, the Kingdom of the Netherlands formally transfers sovereignty from old the the Indies Dutchwomen to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia, except for the Western New Guinea.

Under the international pressure, the Dutchmen finally agree in 1949 to organize in $the Hague a conference known as " Ronde" Table;. A République of the United States of Indonesia ( Republik Indonesia Serikat or LAUGH) is created on December 14th, 1949. The December 27th, the Kingdom of the Netherlands formally transfers the Souveraineté on the territory from the old Indies Dutchwomen to LAUGH. The " Revolusi " is finished.

Rebellions

From 1948 to 1965, Indonesia goes to be the theater of several insurrectionary movements.

In 1948, soldiers sympathizers of the Partai Komunis Indonesia (PKI, the Communist party indonésien) occupy the town of Madiun with Java Is. The insurrection will be repressed in 2 weeks.

In 1949 a leader of Hizbullah, a militia of young Moslems, proclaims in the west of Java a Negara Islam Indonesia (“Islamic State of Indonesia”). It is the beginning of the rebellion of the Darul Islam, which will not end that in 1965 with the capture and the execution of its last chief.

In 1950 Dr. Soumokil, a Minister for the State of Eastern Indonesia, one of the 7 Member States of LAUGH, proclaims the " Republic of Moluques of the South ". The rebellion is subdued in 4 months. August 17th, 1950, the government of Jakarta proclaims the creation of the “unit State of the Republic of Indonesia” ( Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia ), which replaces LAUGH it.

In 1952 in Jakarta, tanks surround the presidential palace. The chief of staff of the Army indonésienne, general A.H. Nasution requests from president Soekarno dissolution Parliament, denouncing the system of the parties. Soekarno refuses the application and takes again the situation in hand. The business of October 17th turned short.

In 1957 bursts the rebellion of Permesta ( Piagam Perjuangan Semesta or “charter for a universal fight”) in the northern of Célèbes, in protest with the project of Soekarno to found a " democracy dirigée" putting an end to the parliamentary democracy. In 1958 with Padang, with Western Sumatra, opponents with Soekarno proclaim a Pemerintah Revolusioner Republik Indonesia (" revolutionary government of the Republic of Indonésie") or PRRI. The PRRI and Permesta are combined. The rebellion ends in 1961.

Non-alignment

In 1955 a conference in the town is held of Bandung, in the west of Java. It joins together for the first time of the history about thirty country of what one then called the Tiers-monde. Among the personalities which there appear appear the Chinese Zhou Enlai, the Égyptien Gamal Abdel Nasser, the Indien Nehru and Indonésien Soekarno. This conference will mark the entry on the international scene of the Third World countries. It is considered that it is the birth certificate of the movement of the non-aligned ones.

The question of the Western part of New Guinea

At the time of the independence of Indonesia, the Dutchmen kept the control of the Western part of the New Guinea, in order to prepare independence, proclaimed on February 1st 1961.

After the failure of the negotiations with the bearing Dutchmen on incorporation in Indonesia of the territory, the December 18th an invasion of the parachutists indonésiens caused armed confrontations between the troops Dutchwomen and indonésiennes in 1961 and 1962. In 1962, the United States exerted pressures on the Netherlands at the time of secret talks with Indonesia which emerged, the August 15th 1962, on the signature of the Accord of New York, granting, as from, on May 1st 1963 the administrative responsibility for the area in Indonesia.

The Confrontation Indonesia-Malaysia

In 1957, the States of the Malayan Péninsule obtain the independence of the United Kingdom under the name of Federation of Malaysia. From 1959 to 1962, the British, Malaysia, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak negotiate in order to create a widened federation. This project is denounced by the president indonésien Soekarno, who declares that Malaysia is a marionette creation of the British which will increase their control on the area, threatening independence of Indonesia. On their side, the Filipino assert Sabah, under pretext that this territory had belonged to the sultanate of Sulu at the 18th century. The two countries are based on an opinion widespread anti-federation in Sarawak and Brunei.

In Brunei, a revolt bursts on December 8th, 1962, constant by Indonesia. British troops and gurkha stationed in Singapore are sent. The commander of the rebels is captured on April 17th, 1963 and the rebellion ends. At once, of the “volunteers” indonésiens penetrates with the Sarawak and Sabah, being devoted to attacks and actions of sabotage and propaganda. The July 27th, Soekarno declares that it “will crush Malaysia” ( Ganyang Malaysia ). Mid- 1965, the armed forces indonésiennes cross the border in direction of the oriental party of the island of Sebatik close to Tawau in the State to Sabah. The climbing towards an open conflict of greater width was probably avoided only because of the increase in the internal political tensions in Indonesia.

See also: Confrontation Indonesia-Malaysia

Soekarno thought as of the beginning of the year sixty of forming a government of national union (the NASAKOM) gathering all the political tendencies of the country; in 1964 three ministers members of the Communist party indonésien (PKI) are named.

At that time, the United States began their military engagement with the Vietnam by bombarding north. The alignment of Indonesia with the socialist block, in particular with China (Soekarno speaks about a “axis Jakarta-Phnom Penh-Hanoi-Beijing-Pyongyang”), makes fear with the Americans the creation of a “second face” in Southeast Asia.

Dictatorship of Soeharto

October 1st, 1965 in the morning, an officer of the presidential guard announces with the radio operator being with the head of a " council révolutionnaire" who thwarted a plot against president Soekarno and stopped six generals. Another general, Soeharto, take the head of repression. In forty-eight hours, the rebels are stopped. Soeharto issues the dissolution of the PKI, shown to have fomented what one will call the " movement of September 30th " or Gerakan September Tigapuluh , of which the acronym, " Gestapu" , is very evocative. A hunting for the Communists follows which will last of the months and will make between 500  000 and one million died according to the estimates. The March 11th 1966, constrained Soeharto Soekarno to sign the " Supersemar " (acronym of Surat Perintah Sebelas Maret , " schedule of March 11th "), by which this last formally transfers the capacity to Soeharto, which is then elected president of the Republic by the MPRS ( Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Sementara , " deliberative assembly of the people temporaire").

The new mode joins again with the Western camp. Indonesia reinstates UNO, the the World Bank and the Fonds international currency, that Soekarno had made him leave. A law on the overseas investment is promulgated in 1967. The Western oil companies sign contracts of exploration, attracted by the potential of the country. The important discovered ones are made.

In January 1974, of the riots burst in Jakarta, following demonstrations of students who benefitted from the visit of Japanese the Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka to protest against the seizure of the foreign assets, in particular Japanese, on the economy indonésienne. It will be the last demonstration against the mode for 24 years.

In December 1975, the army indonésienne invades Eastern Timor, where the independence party Fretilin has just declared independence. The pretext of this intervention is a call using two other Timorese parties pro-indonésiens, Apodeti (popular Association democratic of Timor) and the UDT (democratic Union of Timor). The 24 years of occupation indonésienne which follow will make 200.000 dead on a population lower than 1 million inhabitants.

Under Soeharto nevertheless, Indonesia will experience an impressive development. The incomes of oil, which will account for 80% of exports indonésiennes in 1980, make it possible to finance the development of the infrastructures, basic health, of primary education, as well as industries of State. At the same time, the mode supports the rise of national private large companies belonging to business men of Chinese origin .

The fall of the oil price in 1986 allows the World Bank and the IMF to force Indonesia to start with déréglementer and to liberalize its economy and privatiser its government enterprises. This privatization is translated in the facts by a transfer of credits to the business men close to Soeharto and soon, with his/her children who reached the adulthood.

During the 33 years of its reign, Soeharto and its family grew rich considerably with the favor by the strong growth which the country knew. In 1998, following the Asian economic crisis (the currency indonésienne lost 80  % of its value), after many demonstrations in all the country, of which the riots of Jakarta of May 1998, and the pressure of the IMF, Soeharto ends up giving up its station on May 21st, 1998. Its vice-president, Baharuddin Jusuf (B.J.) Habibie, becomes president. In August 1999, Habibie organizes a referendum on independence with Eastern Timor, annexed by Indonesia in 1975. The victory of the partisans of independence is followed of a wave of violence.

The democratic transition

In September 1999 the first democratic elections since 1955 are organized. New MPR (assembled) elects president Abdurrahman Wahid, called " Hard Gus ". This one is relieved in 2001 by the MPR. Its vice-president, Megawati Soekarnoputri, girl of Soekarno, succeeds to him. In 2004, an amendment of the constitution allows the first presidential elections by the direct suffrage with two turns. Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono beats Megawati with the second round.

The country at the present time suffers from its economy, its internal policy and religious conflicts. To that the movements secessionists are added to the north of Sumatra (Aceh), in Papua (in the past Irian Jaya ) as in the archipelago of the Moluques where is held disorders very violent one (largely organized and instrumentalized by factions with the capacity in Indonesia) between Christians on the one hand and Moslems (run primarily of Java) on the other hand.

See too

Internal bonds

• Political of Indonesia

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