History of Haiti

In the beginning, the island of Ayiti , i.e. “Ground of the high mountains”, was populated by the Taïnos or Arawaks, people semi peaceful Sédentaire. When Christophe Colomb accosted for the first time on December 6th 1492, the island probably counted several hundreds of thousands of inhabitants.

The Spanish conquest

After long steps and a long adventure at sea, the untameable tenacity of Christophe Colomb was finally rewarded: October 12th, 1492, seventy days after its departure of Palos (Spain), it approached one of the Bahama islands: Guanahani, which it called San Salvador (Saint Saver) in undoubtedly remembering the dangers of its crossing. He discovered large Cuba on October 26th; and on December 6th, it threw ink at the bottom of a bay which, in the honor of the saint of the day, was dénomméee " bay of Saint Nicolas's Day. It had just discovered what, later, will be called Haiti. Christophe Colomb baptized this ground which it found marvellous, Hispaniola (“Small Spain”). With its second voyage in 1493, it founded there the first city of the Nouveau World, Isabella, and settled there. After having overcome, especially by trick, the five Cacique S which directed the country, the Spaniards subjected the autochtones to forced labors in order to extract the Or from the mines. In less than twenty-five years, the Indian populations were decimated by the brutality of the Esclavage and the diseases imported by the conquerors.

The new governor Nicolás de Ovando tried as of 1503 to make come from the Blacks of Africa to replace the autochtones. The Traite was authorized in 1517 by Charles Quint. The city of the south, Santo Domingo, became the wearing of departure of the colonization of the Nouveau World. The Spaniards imported in quantity of the horses, bovines and porcine which they left in freedom, being interested only in gold. As of 1530, the island started to pay some more. The Spaniards concentrated their efforts in the oriental party of the island which still concealed a little gold and gave up the west.

French colonization

At this point in time the French were interested in the Western part of the island. At the end of the 16th century, Flibustier S French were established on the island of the Tortoise, in north. They periodically tried incursions on the “Large Earth”. Towards 1625, of the French occupied the North-western part and gained gradually towards the south. These Boucanier S drove out the animals become wild and sold meat and leather.

Under the impulse, in metropolis of the minister Colbert and on the spot of the first administrator, Bertrand d' Ogeron, named in 1665, the colony took his rise. Its first capital, the Cape-French, was founded in 1670. At the time of the Treated of Ryswick (1697), the Spain gave up with the France the Western part of the island, which became then the colony of Saint-Domingue (future the Haiti).

The first cultures were the Tabac, then the indigo. They claimed labor on rather small surfaces: of the French fleeing misery committed themselves for 3 years working without wages, then were installed on new grounds. The draft négrière also developed and was institutionalized. It is in 1685 that was enacted the black Code, an ordinance of Louis XIV intended to regulate the mode of slavery by specifying the duties of the Masters and of the Esclave S. the provisions however severe of this code towards the slaves were often amplified. The obligation of evangelization was neglected, just as the obligatory rest of Sunday. To the capital punishments envisaged in certain cases, the colonists added maltreatment and mutilations. The African was marked with red iron, changed name, gave up his vestimentary practices and his language. The cruelty of the colonists was such as at the 18th century the life expectancy of a slave hardly exceeded ten years.

The colony of Santo Domingo became richest of the the Antilles. At the end of the XVIIIe century, the value of its Exportation S exceeded even that of the the United States. This prosperity rested mainly on the Sucre and the Café which had supplanted the first cultures and required large plantations. In 1789, the day before the French revolution, they employed close to: 500000 black slaves for: 32000 White and: 28000 free Coloured persons (of the Mulatto S and of freed).

The abolition of slavery and independence

Revolt blacks

The revolt of the blacks began in August 1791 following the Cérémonie from Wood-Caiman, in the plain of North: more than 1.000 white were cut the throat of and the burnt dwellings. Under the control of their chiefs - of which most important was All Saints' day Louverture - the blacks passed from a revolt to a war of liberation while being combined initially to the Spaniards of Santo Domingo, in war against the new French Republic. Many white, royalists, supported the Britanniques or the Spaniards. The police chiefs of Convention, guided at the same time by their ideal and the need for being allies, proclaimed the freedom of the slaves; Sonthonax, on August 29th 1793, for the province of North, and Polverel on September 4th in the province of the South. February 2nd 1794, the Convention confirmed by acclamation this declaration and extended the Abolition of slavery to all the French colonies.

All Saints' day Louverture adopted the République in 1794. In a few months, with the head of an army of 20.000 former slaves, it released half of the territory. It was named in 1796 major general and vice-governor of the island. In 1798, it negotiated directly with the British the release of the ports which they still held and showed thus that he was the only chief of the colony. It imposed the supremacy of the blacks on the mulattos during a civil war in 1800. In 1801, it establishes its authority on the whole of the island by invading the Spanish part and by promulgating a Constitution. It gave the saving in Plantation on foot while founding the forced labor, not hesitating to point out the former colonists and to repress by the force the dispute of the blacks.

Independence

But, Napoleon Bonaparte wished the re-establishment of slavery. In January 1802, benefitting from the negotiations of peace with England, it dispatched an army of twenty thousand men ordered by his brother-in-law, the general Charles Leclerc (see the Expédition of Santo Domingo). In spite of a baited resistance, All Saints' day Louverture had to negotiate peace. June 7th, 1802, it was captured. Brought in France, it was interned with the Fort of Joux, in the the Jura, where it died of the rigors of the climate on April 7th 1803.

Leclerc restores slavery in the oriental party of the island in July 1802. The French soldiers died in great number of the yellow fever. Leclerc, itself, died on November 1st. It was replaced by the general Rochambeau who appeared particularly cruel. The war of liberation began again as of October 1802. It was federate in May 1803 by one of the generals of All Saints' day, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and leads to the defeat of the French Armies on November 18th, 1803 at the time of the Bataille of Vertières, city located not far from current the Cape-Haitian. Independence was proclaimed on January 1st 1804 with the Gonaïves by Jean-Jacques Dessalines. The first free black republic of the world took the Indian name of Haiti.

Empire of Dessalines

Fearing a return of the French, Dessalines made massacre the white which still resided in the country; then, it made build extremely S. It took the title of Empereur in October 1804. In parallel, it officialized the French, even if the great majority of the population spoke only the creole . It confiscated the grounds of the colonists and gave the best to its officers. Its constitution of May 20th, 1805 prohibits the land and buildings with the white. To give in market the economy, it enacted the forced labor of the farmers with a payment harder than that of All Saints' day. The people took again the weapons against this Dictature. The emperor was killed in a ambush on October 17th 1806.

Secession of the oriental party of the island (current the Dominican Republic)

Whereas the disorder reigned in the Western part of the island and a climate of secession, the French who remained in the oriental party of the island were beaten by the inhabitants hispanico-Creoles , under the command of Juan Sánchez Ramírez, with the battle of Palo Hincado the November 7th 1808.

The Haitian capitulation in the oriental party of the island was made with Santo Domingo the July 9th 1809. The authorities re-established the colony then, by calling it “ España Boba ” (literally Spain idiot , because the country, after being itself rebelled, had recovered voluntarily under the authority from the Spain). The Spain idiot lasted 12 years until the independence of the Dominican Republic in 1821.

The difficult construction of the national unit

After the assassination of Dessalines, the country was divided under the authority of two of its former generals: the Black Henri Christophe, elected president with the limited capacities, tried to be essential, but ran up against the mulatto Alexandre Pétion who defended the capital Port-au-Prince. It regained the Cape-Haitian, in north, where it was established life president. In the south, the senate elects Pétion.

Christophe imposed his authority by the weapons on the area of the North-West in 1810. March 26th, 1811, he proclaimed King under the name of Henri 1st. He establishes a Noblesse and built several palates, like that of Without-Concern, as well as the citadel Laferrière not far from his capital, Cape-Haitian (both classified today world heritage of humanity by UNESCO). He took again the system of the plantation by distributing the grounds to his close relations and by founding an agrarian militarism to force the peasants to work there. He had to subdue a mutiny in 1812. Struck of a crisis of Apoplexy on August 15th 1820, it remained about it partially paralyzed. In a few months, a new rebellion was declared. October 7th, 1820, given up by its guard, Christophe committed suicide of a silver ball.

Pétion, as for him, proceeded to distributions of small holdings to the greatest number, which ensured its popularity. This policy generated an autarkical saving in subsistence. Pétion supported, in vain, the rebellion of the North-West against Christophe. The general André Rigaud, returned of exile, created a state in the peninsula of the south on November 3rd, 1810, that Pétion, after having it a recognized time, succeeds in reversing by causing a local revolt on March 7th, 1812. In December 1815, Pétion gave asylum to Simon Bolivar, in escape. It provides him weapons against its promise to abolish slavery on the continent (Bolivar will abolish slavery in Latin America on July 6th 1816). Pétion made change the constitution in order to become life president on June 2nd, 1816. But, patient, it thought of resigning and died on March 29th, 1818.

The commander of its guard, Jean Pierre Boyer, asserted himself near the senate and became president. In front of the insurrection against Christophe in October 1820, Boyer left for the Cape to the head its army. October 26th, it attached north to the Republic.

Second occupation of the oriental party of the island

In 1821, the oriental party of the become again island Spanish colony raised and proclaimed its independence on February 1st 1821.

Benefitting from opportunity and call from some risen, Boyer invades the country nine week after its independence and enters in Santo Domingo the February 9th 1822, attached is island in Haiti.

The military occupation lasted 22 years, until the fall of Boyer, it is generally seen like one period of brutality, although reality is more complex. The twenty-two years allowed the expropriation of land great landowners and the reforms fallen through to export the agricultural produce, to make compulsory the military service, to restrict the use of Spanish and to eliminate the traditional habits such as the cockfights. That reinforced finally the national feeling of Dominican which dissociated Haitians on the language, the race, the religion and the habits. This period also allowed the end of slavery in this part of the island.

The fight of Boyer for the recognition of the independence of Haiti

In 1814, the king Louis XVIII sent three emissary to Saint Domingue, the Dauxion-Lavaysse mission, Draverman at Pétion and Franco of Medina at Christophe to make recognize his authority. For some it aimed simply to the re-establishment of slavery, which made scandal; for others it was a simple mission of espionage. It ended in the death sentence of Free of Medina. A second mission will intervene in 1816: with the help of a protectorate on the island, France proposed in Pétion the title of governor. The two French emissary, Fontanges and Esmangard, were gotten rid of like the others. On the whole, more than ten official or semi-official missions were dispatched between 1816 and 1823.

Boyer proposed an allowance of compensation for the former colonists against the recognition for independence. The negotiations trampled. The new king Charles X employed the force: He signed on April 17th 1825 a decree “conceding” independence against the payment of an allowance of 150 million payable gold franc in five years and dispatched a fleet of 14 warships. This sum represented 10 years of revenues from taxes of the country. Boyer accepted. As of 1826, Haiti was recognized by almost all the nations (except for the the United States). Boyer had to create a special tax, source of unpopularity, and negotiated a loan of 30 million, while requiring a reduction of the debt. This one was brought back to 90 payable million in thirty years, in February 1838.

Important legislator, Boyer made ratify a rural code on May 1st, 1826 which founded an agrarian militarism and the Corvée for the maintenance of the ways. In January 1843, the south was raised. Its overcome troops, Boyer abdicated and exiled on February 13rd, 1843.

Instability and underhand dealings

Benefitting from the exile of Boyer, a Dominican insurrection will drive out the Haitian garrison of Santo-Domingo the February 27th 1844 and will proclaim the independence of the Dominican Republic after 22 years of military occupation.

During three-quarter of century, Haiti sank in instability and political violence, torn between the elites mulattos - mainly rural and dominating in the south - and black - especially landowners and influential in north. Moreover, except some exceptions, the leaders worried neither about the company nor of the economy.

Hérard river, ladykiller of Boyer, were reversed at the end of four months. The senate consequently chooses not to elect but old and weak men more. Three old men addicted to drink or illiterate followed one another in two years while revolts did not cease being declared.

March 1st 1847, the senate elects Faustin Soulouque, black illiterate, which was not even candidate. Quickly, it appeared ambitious and given. The August 25th 1849, it enjoignit Parliament to proclaim it emperor. He was made crown on April 18th 1852 with a ruinous ostentation for the country. The payment of the debt had to be stopped. It launched out in a severe repression against the mulattos and reigned as a despot on the country during ten years. It failed by twice re-occupying the Dominican Republic militarily. The January 15th 1859, it was reversed by the general mulatto Nicolas Geffrard.

The presidency of Geffrard constituted an interlude during this time of disorders. Geffrard restored the Republic. It negotiated a Concordat with the the Vatican, signed with Rome on March 28th 1860. Haiti was recognized by the United States of Abraham Lincoln on June 5th 1862. Geffrard developed the primary and higher state education. By its rural code of 1863, it founded the drudgery to carry out roads, channels and fountains. He encouraged cotton exports and reduced the army of half. But finances remained fragile. He had to repress several conspiracies, of which that of Salnave to the Cape in May 1865 which required the intervention of the British navy. December 31st, 1863, a crime in sorcery on a little girl had echoes in the international press which, consequently, compared the Vaudou to the Sorcellerie. In front of a rising of all the area of the Artibonite, Geffrad resigned on March 13rd 1867.

Brutal authoritarianism became again the standard, involving successions of revolts. The new president, Salnave, excited as of October 1867 the population against the House of Commons and closed this one. North, then the south of the country made secession in 1868. Groups of armed peasants, called “cacos”, were organized in north. Always ready with the revolt, they will constitute during one half-century the sword of Damocles of all the leaders, including those which will rest initially on them to reach the capacity. Several coups d'etat followed one another. The incurie was such as in June 1872, the German government used the military force so that the Haitian State refunded a debt towards German citizens.

In September 1883, in front of a middle-class insurrection in Port-au-Prince, black president Solomon made massacre 4.000 mulattos. One needed the threat of a foreign intervention so that the calm one returned. Solomon, nevertheless, could restore finances of the country; he completed the payment of the debt. He developed secondary education and rural. In front of a double revolt of Port-au-Prince and cacos, it had to exile in August 1888.

After more than one year of anarchy, Hyppolite seized the power. In 1891, it held head with the will of the United States to be made concede the north-western point of the country: the Saint Nicolas's Day mole. The same year, in front of a sedition of part of its guard, it made massacre 150 people. It developed the Téléphone and built several markets, slaughter-houses and quays, at the price of strong a Inflation. In 1896, the revolts began again; Hyppolite died of a Heart attack.

The Haitian State if was discredited that, fine 1897, following the muscular imprisonment of a German resident, Lüders, Germany dispatched two warships to require an exorbitant allowance of 20.000 $ and the official excuses of the Head of the State, Sam, who had to be carried out.

The fights between military factions began again. Even the opponents with the capacity in place tore. A president drove out the other: between 1908 and 1915, there will be 9 of them.

American occupation: 1915 to 1934

From 1908, the American companies negotiated Concession S exorbitant to build railways and to develop plantations of Banane S by expropriant the peasants. The Americans ended up occupying Haiti militarily. July 28th 1915, crowd had been to lynch president Sam in the legation of France, following the massacre of political prisoners. The US president Woodrow Wilson sent the Marines to Port-Au-Prince. In six weeks, the United States made elect a president, Sudre Dartiguenave and sign a Treaty, bases legal occupation, by which they controlled the Douane S and the Administration. The American administrator had the capacity of Veto on all the government decisions of Haiti and the officers of the Navy were useful in the provinces. The local institutions, however, continued to be directed by the Haitians.

In 1917 the President Dartiguenave dissolut the Parliament which had refused to approve a Constitution inspired by the secretary with the Navy of the United States: Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1918, this one was approved by referendum. Of liberal inspiration, it allowed the land and buildings foreigners. Dessalines had prohibited this one and this point had remained an inalterable principle of any legislation.

In 1918, roads were built under the system of the Corvée. With the end of the year, the country was in a state of insurrection. Armed peasants, called " cacos" were up to 40.000. It was necessary two years so that the Navy mâtent the revolt by making several thousands of deaths.

The American occupants were impressed of Racisme. This attitude dismayed in particular the elite mulatto, French-speaking and educated. Indignation generated a news racial pride which was expressed in the work of a new generation of historians, of writer S (like Rumanian Jacques) and artists.

Washington benefitted in 1922 from the election from another President, Louis Borno, to commit itself n the other hand providing to Haiti a political and economic help of the occupation. Was established what the opposition called " the dictatorship bicéphale" between Borno and the High-Commissioner, the general John Russell. Public finances were cleansed and the reduced Endettement. The national currency, the gourd, was attached to the Dollar, ensuring its stability (but with the risk to overestimate it). The administration and the army were professionnalisées and corruption, removed. The state education was taken again since the primary education and was centered on the Professional training. The infrastructures made great strides without precedent: Thus, the automatic Téléphone was installed in Port-au-Prince; the port S were equipped with wharfs and headlights; a department of health public was developed, with hospital and dispensaries of countryside. 1700 km of Route S were created and maintained. However, this forced march towards modernity was done at the expense of the Démocratie, the senate being dissolves.

The Haitians preserved a strong hostility towards the American occupant who did not hesitate to make use of the weapons. In 1929, the world Economic crisis reduced agricultural exports whereas new taxes and standards were levied on the peasants. December 6th, of the peasants protesters ran up against Marines with the place known as of Marchaterre: it ten had more than died there. The opposition broke out. The US president Herbert Hoover proposed with the Congrès the sending of a board of inquiry to the goals to withdraw itself from Haiti. In April 1930, it made elect a provisional president: Eugene Roy who organized legislative elections. In November, Sténio Vincent was elected with the Presidency.

The American troops left on August 21st 1934. This departure generated the return to authoritative inclinations. By twice in 1946 and 1950, a military junta ensured the transition from the capacity: after Vincent and Estimé, which organized the international exhibition in December 1949. October 9th, 1950 the first presidential elections with the Vote for all took place. The mobilization of the electorate was weak. Colonel Magloire was elected to 99% of the votes. At the end of its mandate, in 1956, it tried to be maintained with the capacity and had to exile in December in front of the extent of the strikes. The effective exercise of the capacity thus remained between the hands of the army.

Dictatorship of Duvalier

The year 1957 was disturbed of Putsch S, attacks and scandals. Provisional president Fignolé was demolishes by the chief of armed whom it had named one month itself earlier. In September 1957, the army organized elections: the doctor François Duvalier, known as “Dad Doc.”, was elected president of the Republic, thanks to the support of the Blacks which transfer in him the means of putting an end to the reign Mulattos.

Upon the departure, François Duvalier imposed a policy of oppression while moving away the not very reliable officers from the army, by prohibiting the opposition parties, by founding the state of siege and by requiring Parlement the authorization to control by decrees (July 31st 1958). April 8th, 1961, he pronounced the dissolution of the Parliament.

Duvalier escaped several putsches: in 1958, eight men occupying by surprised the barracks Dessalines de Port-au-Prince, made believe a time that they carried out the army; in 1959, during its disease, its substitute, Barbot, helped of marines American, prevented the unloading of a commando. As soon as restored, Duvalier made imprison Barbot for sixteen months.

Fearing an opposition on behalf of the Catholic church, Duvalier expelled several priests like two bishops. It was excommunicated in 1961. In 1966, Duvalier renewed contact with the Vatican.

The mode rested on a paramilitary Milice, the Volunteers of the national security called the “uncles macoutes”. With this personal Praetorian guard, it neutralized the army, sowed terror in all the country and managed to choke any resistance. After rumors of plot within the army, it reinforced repression and, on April 1st 1964, it proclaimed “life president”. He exerted until his death a relentless dictatorship (one counted 2000 executions for the only year 1967). In February 1971, François Duvalier organized a plebiscite to designate his son, Jean-Claude, like successor.

Many Haitians took the way of the exile, mainly with the the United States and the Quebec. With died of Dad Doc., on April 21st 1971, Jean-Claude Duvalier, 19 years (from where its nickname of “Baby Doc.”), reached the presidency of the Republic. Amorçant a shy person liberalization of the mode, Jean-Claude Duvalier alienated part of the class noirist which had supported his/her father by marrying a mulatto on May 27th 1980. Its mode was inserted in corruption and the incompetence. March 9th 1983, the Pope Jean-Paul II, visits some in Haiti, declared in French: “It is necessary that the things change here. ” The church started to encourage the democratic reflection. In January 1986, a popular rising reversed the Duvalier son who exiled on February 7th.

However, the end of Duvalier did not mean the end of the dictatorship. A military junta directed by the Namphy general seized the power. The army or old the militiamans repressed in blood the demonstrations and tried to assassinate a priest activist: Jean-Bertrand Aristide. The elections of November 29th 1987 were prevented by the intervention of an armed group. The army organized in January 1988 elections which were boycotted. The elected president, Manigat, dared to displease and had to be exiled at the end of two months. In September 1988, a new military coup d'etat carried the general April. Driven back at the beginning in March 1990 under the American pressure, April was exiled to open the way with elections under international control.

A short return to the democracy

Jean-Bertrand Aristide, former priest who is made lawyer of the poor, gains the victory the December 16th 1990 by 67% of the voices. Its accession with the presidency of the Republic gives again a little hope to the Haitian people. But, on September 29th 1991, it is reversed by a military junta directed by the general Raoul Cédras, is helped by the CIA and the government of George Bush; Aristide takes refuge then in the United States. The “lavalassiens” are made massacre. The the United Nations issue a Embargo. The “boat peoples” start to flow towards the United States.

Under the presidency of Bill Clinton and with the support of the Safety advice of the United Nations, the United States intervenes, following a visit of the former president Jimmy Carter and of the general Colin Powell, 20.000 American soldiers unload in Haiti on September 19th 1994. The October 15th 1994, president Aristide is restored in his functions, which it leaves with his close relation Rene Préval, elected with the presidency of the Republic on December 17th 1995. The mandate of Aristide touched at his end and the Constitution did not authorize it to aspire to a second of it consecutively. In January 1997, UNESCO gives the Price 1996 of education to the human rights in Aristide

The Préval government must face an opposition made up of its old allies. Its mandate is marked by several political assassinations. Legislative elections are organized in May 2000. Aristide is proclaimed victorious presidential election with 91% of the votes cast, but the poll is sullied with irregularities and the boycott of the opposition. The country plunges again in a situation of most confused. The drug trafficking exceeds the records reached under the military junta. As for the middle-class, she does not appreciate the former “small priest”, reproaching him her unforeseeable character and her influence on the masses. Starting from 2001, groups without official constitution attack the partisans of the government. The latter react in the same way. The police force attacks the two parts with violence. In 2003, the opposition is organized under the name of group of the 184. With the support of the students, and in spite of the repression of its partisans, Jean Bertrand Aristide ends up resigning the April 29th 2004 under the pressure of French soldiers and marine American, avant-garde of an international force sent by UNO to bring back the order in the capital. Shortly after the departure of Aristide, the president of the Court of appeal of Haiti, Boniface Alexandre, takes over temporarily the duties under the terms of the Constitution. “Titid” - as call it people of the country - is shown of all the evils of the country, personal enrichment and political crimes. Exiled in Africa, Aristide ends up being accommodated by the South Africa, where he complains that the foreign soldiers forced it to resign and to leave on their helicopter.

With the recent elections of the February 7th 2006, organized under international supervision, crowd port-with-princienne the growth organizers definitely at the head to grant the victory to Rene Préval arrived at the 1st ballot. Same party that Aristide, he is his designated successor. Frauds are detected in favor of the opposition, in particular ballot boxes in favor of Préval found in discharges. Invested its capacities Tuesday June 13rd 2006, it calls with the national unit.

See too

Political of Haiti, where the modern history since 2004 is very detailed.
List of the Heads of State of Haiti

Primary source:

J.C. DORSAINVIL: Manual of History of Haiti , Port-au-Prince, 1929 - republication 1957

External bonds

The Louverture Project: The Battle of Vertières
Laurent Dubois, Avengers of the New-World, History of the Haitian revolution , editions Perseids * History of Haiti on the encyclopedia Mundi Imago

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