History of Crete

The Crete is the principal Greek island and also one of the more Méridionale S of Greece. It represents one of the borders symbolic systems between the Occident and the East. Located at équidistance of the Europe, the minor Asia and the Africa, it occupies a geographical position which confers a rich person history to him while its strategic position is worth to him to have been the ground many conflicts between people for control of the the Mediterranean. The island is a crossroads between Europe and minor Asia, Europe and the the Middle East like between Europe and Africa.

Integral part of Greece nowadays, Crete is however joined together with this one only since 1913. Inhabited at least since the Neolithic , Crete is the cradle of the Minoan Civilization which dominates the Eastern Mediterranean of the IV {{E}} to II, before being erased in front of the rise of continental Greece.

When Rome turns to the East, the island is a stage of the expansion of the Empire. After the division of the Empire, it integrates the Byzantine Empire. It is then in turn Byzantine, Arab at the 9th century, then Venetian after the Fourth crusade and divides it Byzantine Empire between the frank kingdoms. Crete is then divided between Latin occupation and Byzantine heritage. Its position in the Mediterranean is then strategic for the defense of the trade of the “Sérénissime République of Saint-Marc” in the Mediterranean.

At all the times of its history, the island also pokes the covetousness of the Pirates which make an home base of their raids of it. The acts of piracy and the threat which they make weigh on the Mediterranean trade is often the pretext for an intervention and the occupation of the island on behalf of the people having sights on the island.

Crete passes under Othoman domination during the 17th century. The history of Crete is marked out revolts and insurrections of the people crétois against their various occupants. These revolts are all the more marked during the three centuries of Othoman occupation, and in particular during the 19th century. The peak escapes in practice the Turkish supervision starting from 1897, but attached manages to be to the Greece only in 1913.

Crete is the theater of confrontations at the time of the Second world war, then is one of some areas occupied by Germany at the time of the division of Greece between the Germany, the Italy and the Bulgaria.

Crete was for a long time a ground of emigration, suffering of a rural migration. The rise of tourism since the Années 1970 brings a certain economic revival.

Prehistory

One knows few things on the appearance of the old civilization crétoise because few written testimonys reached us. That contrasts with the palates, the houses, roads, paintings and sculptures which them always exist.

The history crétoise is bathed legends (such as those of the king Minos, of Thésée, the Minotaure, Dédale or Icare) which reached us by the means of Greek historians and poets.

Because of the lack of written testimonys, the chronology concerning Crete is based on the style of the Aegean potteries and the Middle East, so that the chronological planks of Crete were carried out starting from the objects bought with other civilizations (Egyptian woman for example) - a current method. For the oldest times, the organic Carbon dating of remainders and charcoal offers independent dates. Starting from these elements, one thinks that Crete is inhabited from, as many found obsidian scales prove it with Trypti and Roussès, the east of Héraklion and the cave paintings of Asfendou Sfakion, representative of the animals with horns and reasons abstract.

The installation of human is attested with the Neolithic . Tools in bone and horn were discovered in the area of Réthymnon. They would have belonged to men of the interglacial period, but no proof is for the moment rather convincing. However, it seems well that the idea of an occupation since the Paléolithique is reinforced.

The fauna of Crete is then a fauna Pléistocène, stags dwarf (Praemegaceros cretensis), giant rodents, the insectivorous ones, badgers, and a kind of otter terrestrial. There are not large carnivores. The majority of these animals disappear at the end from the last glaciation. It is not certain that the man played a part in this extinction, that one finds on other islands of the Mediterranean as in Sicily, with Cyprus and Majorque. Until now, no ossement of this endemic fauna was found in the Neolithic sites.

The first inhabitants probably come from the east: of Anatolia, Cilicie, or perhaps of Palestine. They introduce cattle then: Sheep S, Goat S, Pig S and Dog S, but also culture of the Cereal S and Vegetable S. Until now, the site of Knossos, whose occupation goes back to), remains the only site aceramic (or preceramic). Indeed, the fact that no pottery was found in layer X lets think that the occupation of site is done before the appearance of ceramics. The site covers then: 350000 m ². The rare found bones are those of animals mentioned above but also of stags, badgers, martens and mouse: the extinction of the local mégafaune did not leave much game. Neolithic pottery was found with Knossos, the caves of Lera and Gerani. The late Neolithic era saw the proliferation of sites, thus showing a growth of the population. During this period the ass and the rabbit are introduced on the driven out island, stag and the agrimi. The agrimi, a wild goat's milk cheese, preserves the features of the first domestications. Horses, deer and hedgehogs are attested only with the Minoan time for the moment.

The Céramique S of the Neolithic era evolve/move throughout this period. Simple and without decoration at the beginning of the Neolithic era, they become more sophisticated thereafter, with engravings, and the techniques of manufacture seem advanced enough for the time. Of black and red color, this ceramics was cooked in open furnaces. At the end of the Neolithic era, they generally represent female figures with the parts of the body relating to fruitfulness development (belly, thighs, centres), with a ground out of beaten ground, covers of a coating inside, like the ground. The roofs are flat and facts of cob. The houses are equipped with terra cotta steps and hearths to the old Neolithic era II. Deaths are buried and accompanied by potteries and stone jewels. The introduction of the obsidian, coming from Milo S and of Nissiros for the manufacture of small tools presupposes at sea the rise of navigation Égée. The thesis of Arthur Evans according to which the introduction of metals in Crete is due to emigrants come from Egypt is completed today. The current theory leans in favor of the fact that all the area of Égée is at that time inhabited of people designated like prehellenic or Aegean, the Argent and the Obsidienne in Cyclades. Ports develop under the influence of this increasing activity: Zakros and Palaiokastro on the Eastern coast, the small islands of Mochlos and Pseira on the septentrional coast become the principal centers of exchange with minor Asia.

The generalization of the use of bronze moves the center of gravity of the island towards its center, whose cities start to compete with those of the oriental party. Moreover, new raw materials divert the attention of Crétois of minor Asia. For example, the tin of Spain, Gaulle or Cornwall arrives on the sicilian coasts and of the Adriatique and certain cities direct their trade towards these areas. Thus the mouth of the Kairatos develops. A road crosses Crete in its medium with Knossos and Phaistos like principal stages.

With regard to agriculture, one knows thanks to the excavations that almost all the known leguminous plant and cereal species are cultivated and that all the known agricultural produce still nowadays as oil, the olives, the wine and the grape are already produced at that time.

Time protopalatiale

Whereas for continental Greece, one considers that the average Bronze is one transitional period, on the contrary, in Crete, it is of a great prosperity. Crete of the first palates makes exceptional commercial great strides, which result in a preponderance of Crete into Égée, so that Milo, Délos or Théra is nothing any more but branches of the island. This preponderance gains even Égine, the Argolide, the central Greece or Cyprus. This commercial expansion of the Minoans is marked by the abundance of the Minoan potteries found out of Crete, and this until in Messénie or Laconie. In the islands of Kéa and Samothrace, were also found, of the Minoan seals in the shape of terra cotta discs. Written historical sources describe the relations of Crete with the other countries, like the found texts with Mari and dating from the XVIII E which mention that Crete imports raw materials (bronzes, tin, ivory) and exports like luxury articles, the products of the workshops of the palates: weapons, fabrics and shoes, and of the Louvites come from Anatolia in particular. Others think that they would be the Hyksos from Egypt, or of internal disorders such as a civil war. The oriental party of the island takes part in this recovery: thus, the palate of Malia, abandoned since -1900 is again occupied. These palates are great units, composed of two stages or more, and are similar aspects, which they are built in Knossos, Phaistos, Mallia or Zakros. They are built around a large central court and are composed of a complex whole of tangled up buildings. The Minoan palates are equipped with a system of water provision and a sewerage system.

Crete mycénienne

The eruption of the volcano of Santorin towards -1400 carries a fatal blow to Minoan civilization. The earthquake caused by the eruption and the destruction of the cities which it generates, supports the incursions of the Mycéniens. The archaeological traces show the existence of mycéniens establishments on the island as of -1380. This new phase of the Minoan history is called “Crete mycénienne”, which means that the island becomes a mycénien part of the world, a dependancy of the continent, but it does not lose her identity for as much. Homère, in the Iliade, mentions that seven cities crétoises take share with the war against Troy, carried out by Idoménée and other lords, themselves directly under the orders of Agamemnon. The eighty ships provided by Crete do one of the largest contributors to the Trojan War and would show of it that the island is not completely ruined by the eruption.

It is at this period that the Greek gods instead of the Minoan gods are imported. Zeus, Poseidon, Héra, Athéna replaces the goddess mother. Elements of Minoan religion remain, as attest some the shelves of Linéaire B mentioning a priestess of the winds or a mistress of the labyrinth. The worship of the Zeus child is also regarded as crétois. Contrary, Knossos influences always certain zones of Égée for certain fields: the weapons and the jewels created with Knossos are adopted by the continent.

Towards the end of the 12th century, Crete knows an upheaval related to the Peuples of the sea, even if their impact is less strong than in continental Greece. Stronger is the change which takes place after the catastrophe of Mycènes: groups of population come from the Peloponnese settle in Crete. New elements appear in the life of Crétois such as the incineration of dead the, the use of the Fer, clothing with pins, the geometrical decoration of the potteries. These new elements would be of heritage Dorien.

Crete dorienne

According to Thucydide, the invasion of Greece by the Doriens takes place eighty years after the bag of Troy. Coming from the Danubian area , Doriens arrive to Greece either by the Illyrie and the Épire, or by the Thrace and the Macedonia. The driven out populations then find refuge in Crete and in Cyprus. Crete is touched in its turn by the invasion dorienne towards -1100. With Karphi, Minoans and Mycéniens link and find refuge on this very escarpé site.

Doriens colonize the island in an intensive way, establishing many cities. The myths tell that Teutamos, wire of Doros king of Doriens, founds the first dynasty dorienne in Crete, just a generation after the establishment of first Doriens. The tradition wants that the first colonists are Pollis and Delphos of Sparte and Althaimenes of Argos. Doriens are divided into three tribes: Hylleis, Dymanes and Pamphyloi. Other tribes doriennes are established in Crete thereafter.

Doriens bring with them the use of iron, the construction of temples (for the Minoans and Mycéniens, the ceremonies occurred in the palates), and the incineration of deaths. However the cremation of dead could not be related to the arrival of Doriens. Already practiced at the same time in Rhodos, Cyprus or Kos, this practice settles in Crete very early at the time of the period dorienne and could thus have an means-Eastern origin.

This invasion involves new migrations of the population crétoise towards minor Asia. Minoans, Mycéniens and Doriens amalgamate in a new ethnic and cultural entity. The descendants of the Minoans, otherwise called Étéocrétois (Crétois pure), are marginalized and are found mainly in the east of Crete. A study on the Toponymy in Crete, watch that 70% of the place names are of Greek origin, 20% pélasgienne, and 10% crétoise.

Dedalic period, or rebirth crétoise

With, Crete finds part of its last splendor. The term of dedalic period does not have however anything to see with the Dédale of the Minoan time which created the Labyrinthe. Maze is the name of an artist to whom it tradition grants the invention of the tools of sculptor and the creation of the first marble statues. If its existence is not proven, that of several of its disciples whose Dipoinos and Skyllis are more certain. The major characteristic of art dedalic is the orientalizing aspect of produced works. The archaeological excavations made it possible to find some important works of which the Dame of Auxerre.

The trade and navigation are revived and Crete takes part in the large wave of colonization which knows the Greek world. Starting from -735, Crétois establish colonies in Sicily, Étrurie and on the French coasts, close to Marseilles, where they arrive 100 years before the Phocée NS. The VII E, they join Rhodos to found the sicilian colonies of Gela and Agrigente, then with Thera to found Cyrène in -631.

This rebirth of Crete is short and stops at sixth century BC insulation and the decline which are of setting until the Roman conquest seems to have two reasons: the emergence of city-States (Athens or Milet inter alia), which monopolize the Mediterranean trade and the internal quarrels which plunge the island in a permanent state of crisis.

Institutions and company dorienne

The company dorienne in Crete is organized in a way very similar to that of Sparte and other centers doriens of continental Greece. The population is divided into three classes: citizens, the apetairoi and a broad servile class. The free citizens are mainly the conquerors doriens or their descendants and constitute the elite of the city-States. They have an exclusive control in military and political matters, resting on a strict military system. They are subjected to a collective formation. Each citizen belongs to a Hétairie, whose members are comrades of combat and, as in Sparte, their meals are caught jointly at the time of Syssitie S. the citizens take part individually in the expenditure, but the State also takes part in it and the dependant rural ones who work the ground of the citizens must also pay a certain sum for the purchase of the food products necessary, so that even poorest of the citizens can take seat with the common table.

Under the citizens, one finds the apetairoi (apart from the hétairies in Greek), which are free men but excluded from the hétairies, therefore deprived of political rights. The servile class can be divided into two categories. The inhabitants first of Crete, form the Périèques. They are mainly peasants who preserve part of their grounds and pay taxes with their new Masters doriens. Lastly, the slaves form the principal social class of Crete, made up of natives crétois or prisoners of war. They cultivate the grounds of the citizens.

A direct consequence of the conquest dorienne is the abandonment of the patriarchal royal system. They are the doriennes big families which manage the island. The cities crétoises from now on are managed by two colleges: Cosmes and the Council of Gérontes. Cosmes are often ten by cities. They are elected by the big families for one year and have civil and military capacities considerable: monitoring of manners, financial statement, statute from abroad. To their exit of load, they enter to the Council of Gérontes (Boulè) as members to life. There exists little of sources treating of the relations between the island and the remainder of Greece, besides some alliances between certain cities: Knossos and Tylissos with Argos in -450, or Lyttos with Lindos.

Crete is in prey with the internal quarrels. The mountainous character of the island accentuates the bulk-heading. The state of the economy forces many Crétois to enlist as mercenaries in the foreign armies. Thucydide mentions on several occasions the archers crétois Athenian army, later, it is Xénophon which evokes the archers crétois within the Ten Thousand. Starting from the Peloponnesian War, one finds mercenaries crétois in all the armies of the Mediterranean, including at the time of the conquests of Jules César (Cretenses sagitarii) .

Even if mercenaries crétois take share with the various conflicts of the Greek world, Crete remains well off these conflicts. In -480, the Greeks threatened by Xerxès, invite Crétois to join their fight. They remain indifferent to the call, pretexting an unfavorable opinion of oracle delphic. Same manner, they remain neutral in the Peloponnesian War, even after the attack of Kydonia by the Athenian fleet.

This withdrawal of the Greek world also appears by the absence of Crétois at the time of the panhellenic Jeux. The long-distance runners crétois were until there famous, but are absent from prize lists of the plays, except in -448. Plato, Aristote, Callisthène and Xénophon inter alia writes on Crete (works of these two last did not reach us). Plato is delayed on the system of education and the joint meals. Aristote thinks that the faulty operation of the mode crétois is compensated by its insular situation and that contrary to Sparte it does not have to fear a rising of its Périèque S. But for him, Sparte is higher because it knew to improve the laws of Minos thanks to Lycurgue.

At the time of Alexandre Large the, one knows that many mercenaries crétois are useful in the army and that its admiral Néarque is crétois. But the attitude of the cities crétoises is not uniform. Certain cities support the policy Macedonian (Knossos, Gortyne, Kydonia), while others are at the sides of Sparte (Lyttos). Sparte tries to maintain a feeling anti-Macedonian on the island through his allied cities. Thus, after the beginning of the forwarding of Alexandre in Asia, king de Sparte, Agis try to raise Crete. Until the conquest of Phénicie, many Greek cities show inclinations of independence. Inclinations which grow blurred after the Bataille of Issos, except for Sparte. Thus, in -333, Agis sends his/her Agésilas brother in Crete in order to take control of it.

Hellenistic Crete

Unit and divisions

After the death of Alexandre, the internal quarrels are accentuated by the attitude of the new Greek States which seek to tie relations with the cities of Crete. The island is divided then into Leagues, whose constitution are explained by geographical factors, ethnic considerations and affinities political. Four leagues are counted:

the most important League of Knossos, and the most extended, including/understanding a score of cities
the League of Gortyne
the League of Phaistos
the league of the mountains, whose geographical extent corresponds to the extreme south-west of the island

Although Crete is divided into four leagues, only two cities exert a political and military domination on the others: Knossos and Gortyne. But their ceaseless competition allows Lyttos and Kydonia to compete sometimes with them.

One however attends the III E with an effort of unification vis-a-vis the external threat. Then occurs, the Koinon , or assembled cities crétoises. The creation of this assembly could go back to -221 when Knossos and Gortyne approach by an agreement enabling them to control the totality of the island. This assembly includes/understands a council and a popular assembly, and meets mainly in Knossos. It seems that the koinon is responsible for an effort of legislation and regulation of the relations between the cities crétoises in order to maintain peace. It seems that there is also a kind of federal court of justice, the koinodikaion intended to arbitrate the conflicts between cities. Although the koinon watch an effort of unification, the cities of Crete remain autonomous in certain fields. It is the case for example in the management of their foreign relations.

So in the system of the koinon , the cities of Crete are supposed to be equal, it is especially Knossos and Gortyne which play a big role in the installation and the behavior of the assembly. The koinon becomes even a scene for these two cities which devote a fight of influence to it and Philippe is recognized like " owner of Crète".

In his expansionist ambitions, Philippe runs up against Rhodos, however his friend and ally, but whose fleet controls the sea routes towards the east and thus the trade. Philippe V uses of two methods to destabilize Rhodos: piracy and the war. He turns then to Crete, accustomed to piracy, so that it takes part in this particular exercise. In -205, it became a real threat for Rhodos, and Philippe then decides to enter in direct military confrontation. The cities of Olous and Hierapytna belong to the first to answer its call. But the Guerre crétoise turns in favor of Rhodos, which makes sure the support of Knossos and other cities of the center of Crete. Hierapytna and Olous cannot fight on two faces and must capitulate. The major part of the east of Crete passes under the control of Rhodos which places strategic naval bases in order to avoid any act of piracy. This event marks the beginning of the interest of the Romans for Crete.

The presence of Rome does not prevent the revival of piracy. But from now on, Rome intervenes in the conflicts as a mediator. Thus, the Second war crétoise (-155 - -153) opposing Crete to Rhodos in connection with the pirate threat ends in a mediation of Rome whose intervention is required by Rhodiens.

Roman Crete

The conquest

In -74, Marcus Antonius Creticus (the father of Marc-Antoine member of the second triumvirate) is named with the head of the fleet of the Mediterranean with an aim of conquering Crete. Two events are at the origin of this decision: the damage which cause piracy with the Roman fleet, especially since the stop of maintenance by Rome of a permanent fleet, and the establishment of an alliance between Crete and Mithridate VI, king of the Bridge and enemy of Rome. Not very inclined to launch out in such an operation, it is only in -71 that Marcus Antonius Creticus decides to attack Crete. Whereas the victory however seemed easy, it is overcome and its fleet destroyed between the site of current Héraklion and the island of Dia. Many Roman ships run, and of many others are captured like their crews. The majority of the Roman prisoners are hung with the masts of the ships.

By fear of reprisals, Crétois wish nevertheless to negotiate and send to Rome thirty eminent representatives of the island in order to conclude an alliance with the Romans. As they refuse, the general Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus is charged to subject them. He unloads in the west of Crete and delivers a long war of seat, advancing of west in is in order to subject to the Roman authority all the pockets of resistance, and shaving the cities which resist to him. But with the catch of Hierapytna in -67, the island is then entirely under control of the Romans. It is Marc Antoine which again joins together the two areas in -40 before yielding a few years later (into -38 or -34) part of the island to Cléopâtre, at the same time as Cyrène. Finally, in -27, Crete and Cyrénaïque are again joined together, with Gortyne like capital, and this until Dioclétien.

On the archeological sites, it seems that there is few large damage associated with the transfer with the authority to the Romans: only one complex palatial seems to have been shaven. There were on the other hand many constructions. The Romans build several roads and of the aqueducts. Gortyne seems to have a behavior pro-Roman what is worth to him to be rewarded and made capital of the province. One built there a court, a theater, a odéon, one nymphée, a forum, etc the city then becomes the first place of Crete, which measures according to Strabon 50 stages diameter (approximately 10km). Knossos, although initially indicated capital of the province, is thus relegated to the row of second city of the island. Inhabited by Roman soldiers and transformed into colony, under the name of Colonia Julia Nobilis, it does not succeed in however becoming a Roman military center. Cities like Lyttos or Hierapytna develop and, like Gortyne, relative of forums or temples. On the southern part of the island, small ports develop being used to shelter the galères on the road of minor Asia and Egypt.

Arrival of Christianity

It is during the Roman period that the Christianisme in Crete appears. One lends to Saint-Paul the evangelization of Crete, as well as the organization of the Church in the island. Because of a storm, it would have made stopover first once in Crete, on the southernmost coast, in Kali Limenes (“beautiful ports”). It would have returned after its first captivity and would have left in Crete Tite, its disciple, and first bishop of Gortyne. The tradition wants that Tite is itself crétois. It would have divided the island into nine dioceses, even if the sources date from and can describe the one later time organization. Christianity seems to run up against sharp resistances, especially on behalf of the Jewish community. The successor of Tite, Philippe manages to divert Roman persecutions against the Christians. However, in 250, persecutions of the emperor Dèce seem to be particularly hard in Crete. The victims of those become the first martyrs of the Church crétoise, called the Ten Saints ( Agioi Deka ). Cyrille, bishop of Gortyne itself is carried out by the Romans. Saved flames by a first miracle, one slices finally the head to him. It is necessary to wait to see the first large Christian monument, the basilica St-Tite of Gortyne.

Byzantine period

First Byzantine period

There exists little of sources concerning Crete of this time, because like other Western provinces of the Byzantine Empire, it drew the attention of the Byzantine chroniclers little. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that it is in periphery of the Greek world. And it is undoubtedly also this peripherality which explains the absence of bishops crétois to the First council of Nicée in 325, whereas smaller islands such as Kos, Rhodos or Chios are represented there.

At the time of the reorganization of the empire by Dioclétien in 285, Crete is separated from the Cyrénaïque and is attached to the Mésie. Later, Constantin attaches it to the Illyrie, of which it is one of the twelve dioceses, before being attached to Macedonia to.

The Byzantine author Hiéroklès thinks at twenty-two the number of cities in Crete at this period. Starting from this report, the historian Theocharis Detorakis estimates the population of the island at approximately: 250000 inhabitants.

During this first Byzantine period, Crete is the theater many incursions and natural disasters. July 9th, 365, an earthquake followed by a Raz-de-marée destroys several cities. In 415, Gortyne is in its turn destroyed by a seism. After a first incursion of the Vandals in 457, the Slaves which had tried to take Thessalonique towards 597 before breaking by Thessalie and central Greece towards the Peloponnese and the islands, invade Crete in 623. Starting from second half of, appears the Arab threat. Arab pirates plunder the coasts crétoises into 656,671,674, then in a way repeated at the beginning of.

Arab domination

The history of the Arab conquest of Crete begins far from Crete. At the beginning of, the Spain is Moslem. In 813, Moslems of Andalusia are raised against the emir Al-Hakam Ier. Overcome, they must leave Spain and find refuge in Egypt, where they benefit from the political crises to seize Alexandria (818-819) before having to leave there. Their attention is made then on Crete, a choice can be guided by the Egyptians who always kept an eye on the island. During the year 824, Abou Hafs would have carried out a first raid of recognition in Crete, accompanies by plunderings, before carrying out the conquest into 825 of it. Allured by the beauty and the fertility of the climate, the Arab decide to be fixed at it. Abu Hafs would have believed to see in Crete, the “ground delicious where runs milk and honey” and which Mahomet promises with its believers. So certain theses estimate that the Arabs would have unloaded in current bay of Almiros, in the west of Héraklion, or in bay of Souda, it seems however that they rather unloaded on the coasts in the south of the island, partly because the Byzantines are less capable to answer quickly an attack by the south. Directed by Abou Hafs, they conquer the island in a few years, except the area of Sphakia. This conquest is facilitated by an internal political crisis within the Byzantine Empire which cannot ensure the defense of the island.

The Arabs base a new capital, on the northern coast of the island, which they strengthen and surround by a deep ditch. This ditch gives him its name, Kandax (or Handakas) which means cutting off in Arabic and who gives Candie later, to indicate at the same time Héraklion and the very whole island. The island becomes an emirate largely independent of the other Arab areas and transforms itself into a hereditary principality.

The economic pressure on the local population and piracy allow the survival of the emirate. Crétois are subjected to a severe constraint. Crete is detached from the remainder of the Byzantine Empire and is erased economically and culturally. No monument neither no literary work, nor the name of a intellectual figure of the time reached us. On the other hand, the Arabs instigate the agriculture of Crete by developing to with it the Canne with sugar, the Coton and the Mûrier.

For the Orthodoxe ones, the martyrdom of Cyril, bishop of Gortyne at the time of the invasion, seems to be one of the most outstanding facts. The sources available (Greek and Arab) do not make it possible to know if the Arabs were respectful or not Christian places of worship. Conversions with the Islam are perhaps limited and surely nonobligatory, not being interesting financially for the Arabs because the Christians are subjected to the tax on land of the Kharadj (capitation paid by the not-Moslems).

During the century and Arab half of occupation, the island becomes again a base of piracy. Throughout, Buckwheats carry out raids towards Lesbos, the peninsula of the Mont Athos (862), in Chalcidique (866), the Adriatic coasts (872-873), they plunder Salonique in 904. The island constitutes during one century and half, the fulcrum major of the Arab maritime power in the Eastern basin of the Mediterranean and the resumption of the control of the shopping streets in the area. In 948, Byzance comes to push back the threat of the Hungarian and the Thraces and can again concentrate on Crete. Thus, Constantin VII lance against Crete an offensive of great width, this time still without result. The reconquest of Crete takes place into 961 when Nicéphore Phocas takes the command of military forwarding. The strategy of Nicéphore rests on the numerical superiority of its soldiers and on the power of the Byzantine navy. It makes raise soldiers in all the topics of Asia and Europe, to which it adds the crack corpses of the guard: 2000 let us dromons provided with the Greek fire and several hundreds with vessels with transport. It gathers then its troops with Phygela, in minor Asia during summer 960. The Moslems are massacred and the plundered city. The remainder of the island falls quickly. The Byzantines bring back from Crete immense spoils. The sources mention that 300 ships are necessary to its transport. Nicéphore sends a part of it to its confessor, Saint Athanase, so that it founds the monastery in which the Byzantine general wishes to finish his life. The foundation of the first monastery of the Athos Mount is thus dependant on the reconquest of Crete by the Byzantines.

It seems that the Arab period of occupation was one period of plundering, and of a fall of the birthrate. To mitigate this situation, Phocas reduces Buckwheats in slavery, makes close the mosques and sends missionaries on the island. It makes install colonies of Greeks, Armenians and the Slavic ones in order to repopulate Crete. The cities are equipped with fortifications.

In 1082, the Byzantine emperor Alexis Ier Comnène sends colonists chosen among the best aristocratic families of the Empire in order to counter the demographic development of the indigenous population. He grants large surfaces and privileges to them. They are the founders of the new aristocracy crétoise which is related to the revolts in the island during the following periods.

Venetian domination

Economy and company

The interest of Venice for Crete is mainly strategic and commercial. This is why, initially, it settles only in the big cities. But Venice ends up occupying all the island, confiscates the grounds which it distributes to colonists of which it supports the installation in exchange of military obligations. Thus, the noble owners owe, in time of war, to provide a rider, two riders, weapons and horses included/understood. The more modest owners must provide ten soldiers to foot.

Each colonist receives with his grounds twenty-five serfs, probably of the descendants of the Buckwheats controlled by Nicéphore Phocas. Little by little during the period, a nobility crétoise develops. The first noble crétois is in fact the descendants of the middle-class families made of Venice at the time of the first waves of colonization at. With time, titles of nobility are granted to of Crétois or Italians hellenized in exchange of services rendered to Venice. This class takes such proportions that the titles of nobility in Crete end up losing of their prestige.

The cultures developed by the Venetian ones are more order speculative that food. Thus, the culture of the Vigne knows a strong growth, and the wine of Rethymnon, boiled for reasons of conservation, is exported until in Poland, Germany or in Constantinople. Towards 1428, the culture of the cane with sugar develops before being replaced by that of cotton. On the other hand, the culture of cereals decreases in strong proportions, on the one hand, to leave the place to these more interesting cultures economically, but also because Venice prohibits sometimes the culture of corn in the most fertile areas in order to avoid at the same time too large gatherings of serfs at the same places, but also to provide supply bases in the event of revolt. Crete thus becomes dependant on the arrival of the cargoes of corn coming from Thrace or Egypt.

The culture of the olive-tree does not seem to be practiced in an intensive way in the first centuries of the Venetian occupation. The traveller Cristoforo Buondelmonti who visited Crete about 1415-1417 known as not to have crossed only one field of olive-tree. However, at the next century, the production of olive oil intensifies: : 240000 for the province of Caned, and a ratio of 1629 indicates a production of: 500000 mistata (either approximately: 3700000 liters). Starting from the beginning of, the Greek influence is done more present. The marriages between Crétois and Vénitiens become more frequent, the more so as much the Venetian ones adopt the Orthodoxie. The Venetian catholics adopt the language Greek that which is used even in the official circles.

Revolts crétoises

The unequal distribution of the grounds and the heavy imposition (a third of the agricultural production is taken), too door for the colonists themselves, explain risings of and. Pierre Daru counts fourteen between 1207 and 1365 of them. In 1361, the lifting of a tax for the repair of the port of Crystallized causes a riot, which brings the dismissal of the duke and his replacement by Marc Gradenigo, as well as the proclamation of the independence of the island. The insurrectionists convert with orthodoxy and transform the church St Marc de Candie into St Tite. Crystallized is taken again in 1364 by Venice. Follows a terrible repression and much of colonists flee.

Rebirth crétoise

The intellectual and artistic life of the time slices with the economic crisis and social. Education, for example makes great strides during the Venetian period. During the first century of occupation, there is no proof making it possible to affirm the existence of schools in Crete. With, teaching strongly develops through the schools monacales which organize libraries. Often, the children of the rich person families study in Italy, in Venice or Padoue, and bring back in Crete the spirit of the Italian Rebirth. Some continue political careers or nuns of foreground in Europe. Thus, Petros Phylagris, is the first teaching Greek of the Université of Paris (1378-1381), before becoming cardinal (1405-1409) then Pape under the name of Alexandre V. With Milan, Demetrios Damilas publishes in 1476 the Grammaire of Constantin Lascaris , the first Greek work published in Europe. Nevertheless a flourishing literature in language crétoise is born on the island, whose most known example is the Erotókritos of Vicenzos Kornaros. Another major figure of the literature of this time is Georgios Hortatzis, author of Erophile. The painter Domenikos Theotokopoulos, more known under the name of El Greco, was born in Crete for this period and is trained with the art of the Byzantine Iconographie S before joining the Italy, and thereafter the Spain.

Othoman Crete

The conquest of the island

The Turkish pressure is specified with. The islands of Égée are captured during second half of, except for Rhodos, of Crete, Cyprus and some small islands. Of all the geographical limits imposed to the Othomans, in fact the Venetian borders irritate them more. Rhodos falls in 1522, in 1537, Venice loses its possessions of Morée, Nauplie and Malvoisie. Tap-holes fall in 1556, in 1570, the Turks unload in Cyprus that the Pope Pie V tries to save. A squadron is equipped and leaves Crete, but arrives after the fall of Nicosie. The rendering of Cyprus causes a sharp emotion in Crete where one expects the imminent arrival of the Turks.

At that time, Venice is able only to maintain a force of: 4000 men for all the island. It is not even able any more to ensure the payment of the balances, and the soldiers must ensure of auxiliary work to provide for their needs. The fortifications crétoises are not in better state, in spite of efforts of rebuilding. Sérénissime can count on a civil militia of: 14000 Crétois. The Venetian policy towards Crétois radoucit vis-a-vis the Othoman threat, and the relations between occupants and occupied improve, but Venice is always reticent to let Crétois arm itself to defend themselves their island.

As on several occasions since antiquity, it is a revival of the pirate threat which serves as a pretext for the invasion of Crete. In 1644, a Turkish vessel carrying an important character of the palate is attacked by the Knights of Malta and the spoils sold with Canée. The Sultan holds the Venetian ones for persons in charge, in particular because the city of Crystallized shelters the Maltese Knights. At the beginning of the summer 1645 350 ships leave Istanbul for Crete. The Othomans unload in the Western part of the island, close of Canée, on June 23rd, 1645. They take Caned after 57 days of seat and a bombardment harms and day of the city. After one second countryside in 1646, they take Rethymnon. Fall in turn Sfakia, Sitia and the other cities of the island. In spring 1648, the Venetian ones have nothing any more but three sites out of Crystallized: Gramvoussa, Spinalonga and Welded.

Sit of Crystallized

Organization and administration

For the first time since more than one century, the Ottoman Empire is in front of the heavy task to organize a new very whole province.

Initially, the Turks maintain the system Venetian of division administrative of the island. The four territoria Venetian become pashalikis (or sandjaks ): those of Sitia, Crystallized, Rethymnon, and Caned the. Each sandjak is directed by a pasha, and is divided into districts ( Kandiliks . The administrative center is based in Candie, re-elected Kandiye . Moreover the pasha of Candie has a prevalence on the two others. The kandilik of Mylopotamos belongs in turn to the sandjak of Crystallized or Rethymnon.

A long time, the mountainous region of Chora Sphakion was regarded as enjoying a relative independence because of its lack of accessibility. However, of recent research tend to prove that the area is offered as stronghold to certain Gazi Hussein which offers it in her turn at the Holy Cities of Mecque and of Médine in 1658.

The Ottoman Empire had until at the time for practice to make manage a territory lately conquered by the army. The Othoman military presence results in the very strong presence of Janissaire S, from which much results from the Islamized population crétoise forming Turco-crétois. In Candie, one counts five battalions including/understanding each one: 5000 imperial Janissaries and 28 barracks of Turco-crétois Janissary. One finds as many Janissaries with Caned in order to ensure the control of the western part of the island.

Economy and company

One of the first consequences of the Othoman conquest is the fall of population. Indeed, this one drops initially during the long fight for the possession of the island, then in the second time, the cities are practically emptied of their population. The urban life becomes very limited and the trade is dying man of it, at least in the first fifty years of the Othoman presence. The Othoman figures of 1671 concerning name current of Héraklion and of Lassithi give: 16516 hearths, is approximately: 65000 inhabitants for the part is island. Bernard Randolph, who visits Crete in 1687 estimates the population at approximately: 80000, of which: 50000 Christians and: 30000 Moslems. These figures, in the absence of being precise have the merit to show the weak population of Crete. The population increases to a significant degree at the beginning of with: 53753 listed hearths, is: 200000 people approximately, and reached: 350000 people at the end of.

The Christians are brought back to the condition of raïas . Excluded from the military service, they, consequently, are compelled with the payment of the kharadj . Justice is between the hands of the Moslems and jurisprudence is often unfavourable to the Christians. The weight of the taxes and the rigor of the occupants lead many Christians to convert with Islam. The private grounds are conceded with the conquerors who have then the title of aghas . These grounds can be sold and pass from father in fils.
Conversion can be done through mixed marriages. The Turks arrive to Crete without woman. They marry and found a family in Crete, even if the mixed marriages are in theory prohibited.

The principal culture of the time is that of corn. The island supplies even the Eubée, Chios or Rhodos. During the famine which touches the north of Europe in 1678, France supplies itself in Crete. The vineyard is in retreat, because of the religious interdict. With, the development of the industry of the soap made turn the inhabitants to the production of olive oil: this oil is exported with Constantinople and especially Marseilles whose soap is done containing oil.

Revolts crétoises

Crete and the Greek Revolution of 1821

Egyptian domination

The Protocole of London grants Crete to Méhémet Ali like Cyprus and the Syria for services rendered to the Sultan during the Greek revolution. Mustapha calls with calm, grants the general amnesty and invites the emigrants to return: the Christian population passes from: 90000 with: 120000 inhabitants. Two mixed councils are founded, even if the minority of the Christians within the population prevents them from being really heard.

The implication of Méhémet Ali in a conflict against the Ottoman Empire and its defeat in Syria shake the Egyptian power in Crete. The great powers, in their will to maintain intact the Ottoman Empire and in order to preserve their national interests, decide to return Crete to the Ottoman Empire, at the time of the Traité of London of July 3rd, 1840. This decision is the pretext of a new attempt at rising, but without a future (February in April 1841).

The internal situation in Crete of exchange not really. Mustapha Pasha goes back on October 31st, 1842 there and remains there until 1850, date on which it becomes Top dog. Among the changes, the capital of the island is transferred with Canée in 1851 and the island is divided of 23 provinces ( Kazades ).

The events of 1848 find a positive feedback in Crete, even if no insurrection bursts this year. March 30th, 1856, the Traité of Paris obliges the sultan to apply the Hatti-Houmayoun , i.e. the civil and religious equality of the Christians and the Moslems. The second cause at the origin of the insurrection of 1866 is the intervention of Ismaïl Pasha, Vice-roi of Egypt and governor of Crete since 1861, in an internal quarrel in connection with the organization of the monasteries crétois. This one causes violent reactions within the Christian population of Crete. In January 1869, the Conférence of Paris is held without Greek representatives. It invites the Hellenic government to abstain from any military action in the island. Crete remains with the sultan, but is declared province privileged, controlled according to the special statutes granted in 1867. This insurrection leads Crete then to be included by the diplomacy of the European great powers in the “Question of the East”.

Contemporary Crete

Independence of Crete

See also: autonomous Crete, Revolt of Therissos

In 1895, the Armenian massacre of S in Anatolia shocks the international public opinion and forces the European great powers to be interested in the fate of Crete. To show its good will, the Porte then replaces the governor of Crete in place, by a Christian, Alexandre Karatheodoris. However, the Turks crétois, opposed to this nomination, perpetuate massacres of Christians in order to oblige Karatheodoris to resign. In reaction, a revolutionary assembly constitutes itself under the impulse of the general consul of Greece.

The tension increases with the acts of violence perpetrated by the Turks. The May 11th 1896, of the Greeks of Caned the and of the neighborhoods are massacred. Similar incidents take place with Héraklion. These events push the European powers to intervene and accentuate their pressure on the Door so that it makes new concessions. With Caned, the consuls of the great powers provide a Constitution to the Christian representatives of Crete. The principal points are: the nomination by the sultan, for five years, and on agreement of the great powers of a Christian governor; the number of employment reserved to the Christians must be the double of those reserved to the Moslems; the gendarmerie crétoise must be reorganized and directed by European officers; a full economic and legal independence is guaranteed in the island under the protection of the great powers.

If the tension calms down some time, it is revived as the Ottoman Empire is long in implementing the Constitution. Mid-January 1897, the massacres begin again, the residence of the bishop of Canée is burnt as well as the Christian quarters.

These new massacres of the Christians by the Moslems cause the intervention of Greece which invades the island, proclaims it occupied and unified in Greece the 1897. The Ottoman Empire requires the intervention of the European powers then. The France, the Great Britain, the Italy, the Russia, the Austria-Hungary and the Germany send warships and quotas to Caned the, Candie, Réthymnon and Sitia. The European powers refuse to recognize the fastening of Crete in Greece and addresses an ultimatum to Greece so that it withdraws its troops. They propose even the solution of autonomy for the island the February 17th 1897. Greece refuses this idea like that of a principality.

In April, the war which bursts between Greece and Turkey obliges Greece to withdraw its troops of Crete to use them on the continent. The Greeks, beaten by the Turkish army formed by Germany ask for the mediation of the great powers. Dies out then the hope of a union with Greece and the leaders crétois have of another choice only to accept autonomy.

Crete remains under the suzerainty of Turkey, and the Great powers do not leave Crete for as much: if Germany and Austria make evacuate their ships and are diverted crétoise question because of their interest growing for Turkey, Great Britain, France, Russia and Italy maintain their troops in order to restore the order and to introduce reforms. They divide the island into four parts, which they manage separately, the Caned capital being managed jointly. This administration by a council of admirals of the European powers is recognized by the assembly crétoise, the great powers propose at the post of governor of Crete Prince Georges of Greece, wire of king de Grèce.

An executive council, to which belonged Eleftherios Venizelos, is in charge of the administration of the island until the arrival of the Prince. This executive council is pilot besides last dramatic event of the Othoman presence. August 25th, 1898, a Turkish riot leads to the massacre of hundreds of Christians, of 17 British soldiers in charge of the safety of the executive council, and the British consul in Crete. The soldiers Turkish are then requested to leave the island: the last Turkish soldier leaves the island on November 2nd, 1898. Prince Georges arrives on December 9th, the powers raise the blockade of Crete, only some European quotas remain on the island. Many Moslems leave Crete then: the census of 1900 estimates the Muslim population at 1/9e population, against a third in 1881.

The government of Prince Georges works out a constitution, the first of the island. Elections are organized and designate 138 Christian deputies and 50 Moslems. Zaimis does not go at the end of its five years mandate. In 1908, the commission which replaces it during an absence proclaims the Enosis in Greece on October 10th, 1908. The union is finally pushed back under the pressure of the the United Kingdom in exchange of the evacuation of the island of the European troops.

Enosis

Benefitting from interior disorders in Turkey in 1908, Crétois declare the union with Greece, an act internationally only recognized in 1913.

Initially, even Greece refuses to recognize this union, by fear of reprisals of the great powers. It is thus a succession of provisional governments made up of Crétois (of which Eleftherios Venizelos until 1910) which directs the island.

With the treated of Bucharest of 1913, which makes following the Guerre of Balkans, the sultan Mehmed V gives up its rights on the island and in December, the Greek flag is hoisted on the Caned fortress of the (become capital) in the presence of the king Constantin Ier of Greece and Eleftherios Venizelos on December 1st, 1913. At the same place, a marble plate is set up carrying the following inscription:

1= Turkish Occupation in Crète
1669-1913
267 years, 7 months, 7 jours
of anguish

Crete within Greece

Economy and company in the first years of the union

The Detorakis historian estimates that economically Crete is in better health than the majority of the other areas of Greece. Inter alia, exports largely exceed the imports at the time of a study of 1928.

The local economy is mainly based on the agriculture and in particular on the exploitation of the olive-tree. : 80000 hectares of olive-trees provide: 25000 tons of oil. Then the production comes from wine, around Héraklion and Caned the. The other cultures present in great quantities are those of the Amande S, of the Agrume S, the Noix, the Tabac and the Soie. The breeding develops quickly during this period, just like the production of cheese of which 650 tons are exported in 1928.

The island starts great work, whose principal ones are the construction of the new port of Héraklion in order to be able to accommodate the ships of strong tonnages, and the opening of two airports, with Maleme and Héraklion. In 1915, Eleftherios Venizelos is opposed to King Constantin Ier of Greece in connection with the entered in war of Greece at the sides of the Allies. The island supports it when it creates a Gouvernement of national defense based to Thessalonique and controlling the north of Greece and that it enters in war to the sides of the Allies.

The demolished of Greece against Turkey in 1922 causes an surge of Greek refugees of minor Asia towards Greece. Crete receives many refugees, in particular of the area of Smyrna. They settle especially around Héraklion. The Traité of Lausanne of 1923 causes an exchange of population between the two country. The Turkish population of the island is evacuated, that is to say approximately: 30000 people. Approximately: 33900 Greek refugees settle in Crete. According to the figures of 1928, the share of the refugees from minor Asia and from Eastern Thrace in some dèmes exceeds the 10% of the population. Such is the case in the dèmes of Caned the, Rethymnon and Pyrgos and more than 20% for Héraklion.

Generally, the population of the island increases. The census of 1928 indicates: 386427 inhabitants, to compare with: 336151 of 1913. And after several centuries of Othoman presence, the population is found quasi-exclusivement orthodoxe, besides some Jewish communities and Armenian, mainly concentrated in the cities.

At the end of the Years 1930, Greece is then directed by the dictatorial government of Ioánnis Metaxás. July 28th, 1938, of the officers of the army and former politicians take the control of the radio station of Canée and call the king Georges II and the army to reverse the mode in place. This action belongs to a plan of greater scale carried out by Emmanouil Tsouderos, then governor of the Banque of Greece. The Greek navy is sent in Crete and the putsch is crushed in a few hours. The captured leaders are condemned to the prison or the exile on islands of Cyclades. Those which could flee towards Cyprus are condemned to died by Contumace.

History of Crete

Prehistory

Time protopalatiale

Crete mycénienne

Crete dorienne

Dedalic period, or rebirth crétoise

Institutions and company dorienne

Hellenistic Crete

Unit and divisions

Roman Crete

The conquest

Arrival of Christianity

Byzantine period

First Byzantine period

Arab domination

Venetian domination

Economy and company

Revolts crétoises

Rebirth crétoise

Othoman Crete

The conquest of the island

Sit of Crystallized

Organization and administration

Economy and company

Revolts crétoises

Crete and the Greek Revolution of 1821

Egyptian domination

Contemporary Crete

Independence of Crete

Enosis

Crete within Greece

Economy and company in the first years of the union

Crete in the Second world war

Invaded Greece

Battle of Crete