History of Algeria

The History and the Géographie of Algeria are closely dependant. Thus, although the human Civilization with the the Maghreb goes back to millenia, it is only starting from the Antiquité that this space starts to take its current form while being divided into three area-people: The Eastern Maghreb, the central Maghreb and the Western Maghreb. The area-people of the central Maghreb will evolve/move with the wire of the centuries in the modern State nation Algerian. This article thus treats history of the Algérie, and not only of the history of the Algerian République modern.

Prehistory (- 1,8 My with - 7.500 years)

Although the history itself is an aggregate of periods, it is important to note that this one is it also preceded by a Protohistoire and of a Préhistoire. In order to present the evolution of a past which leads to the history, this part of the article briefly recalls the end of the prehistory of Algeria.

The first traces of settlement of Hominidés in Algeria would go back to approximately two million front years JC.

Site of Ain El Hanech

The site of Ain El Hanech, in the Wilaya de Sétif is regarded as the oldest layer Archéologique of North Africa.

The age of the vestiges is evaluated by Archéomagnétisme to 1,8 million years, coinciding with the supposed period of the appearance of the Homo habilis .

Site of Tighennif

The site Acheuléen of Tighennif (in the past Ternifine), in the Wilaya de Mascara, delivered vestiges whose age is evaluated between 800 000 and 400 000 front JC. Among these vestiges, primarily made up of animal bones and objects of cut stone, the archeologists discovered the bones of Hominidé which led to the definition of the Atlanthrope, now considered as a Homo erectus .

Atlanthrope had a brain smaller than that of the modern man and a jaw more powerful, and he was a contemporary of other alternatives of the Homo erectus such as the Pithécanthrope of the island of Java. Atlanthrope lived gathering and hunting and frequently moved in its search of food. It occupied the central Maghreb during several millenia and manufactured Biface S and Hachereau X like several other tools.

It disappears towards 250 000 front JC. Indeed, it is about this period, that the Homo erectus disappears after nearly 2 million years to existence (probably while evolving to Homo heidelbergensis in Europe). The settlement of Algeria is composed then exclusively of Homo sapiens , originating in the horn of Africa, which occupies the central Maghreb during 150 centuries, of 250 000 with 50 000 front JC, are until the end of the Paléolithique means. From - 50 000 and until - 20 000 front JC, the Acheuléen yield the place to the Atérien.

Civilization atérienne (- 50 000 has - 7 500 years)

The civilization Atérien whose several vestiges were found on the site éponyme of Bir elater, in the wilaya of Tébessa, lasts of approximately - 50 000 years until the Neolithic revolution towards 7 500 av. JC. During this period, towards 20 000 front JC, from strong rains fall to the the Sahara and North from Algeria, thus creating a very wet climate, and supporting the development of the populations of elephant S, of Girafe S, Rhinocéros and others, that Atériens drive out in great numbers.

The archaeological Fouille S highlighted of the weapons probably of hunting, very refined, made stone, of wood and even of rope, which gives rise to think that a very active civilization lived the site of Bir elater. The first industries of manufacture of points of lances in the Maghreb are introduced by Atériens and are called Oraniennes (also Ibéromaurusien). These industries seem to be appeared towards 15 000 years front JC in the neighborhoods of Oran, in the Algerian West, before being propagated on all the Maghrebian coast during the 5 millenia which follow.

Civilization atérienne disappears towards 7 500 av. JC, at the time of the Neolithic revolution. The Homme of Néandertal was regarded a long time as the author of Atérien but this species from now on is perceived like exclusively eurasiatic. It is probable that antiquated Homo sapiens produced the tools atériens.

With the Neolithic revolution appear companies Sédentaire S which produce their foods thanks to the Agriculture and with the Domestication. In Algeria, this revolution leads to civilization Capsien.

Protohistoire (- 7500 to -2000 years)

Civilization capsienne: (- 7500 with - 2000)

Civilization Capsien, ancestor of the Berber , appears with the hard revolution of the Neolithic era between 9000 and 7500 av JC and until the appearance of the age of iron towards 2000 av JC. Capsiens, direct ancestors of Numides Berber, appear in the south constantinois initially, before spreading themselves in the whole of the Maghreb. Capsiens which lived made campings of huts and branches generally installed on sites near a Oued or of a mountainous collar. At that time the majority of the Maghreb resembled a savanna, as in East Africa today, with Mediterranean forests only in high-altitude.

The Caspian ones were the first in the Maghreb to domesticate the Ovin S, they manufactured various objects, including decorative objets d'art and jewels, such as collars starting from marine shells and various abstract and figurative paintings. Capsiens nourished sheep and bovines, as well as agricultural produce, but also of Escargot S: Indeed of vast deposits of snail empty shells dating from the time capsienne were found, in particular in Mechta Sidi El Arbi in the Wilaya de Constantine. From the anatomical point of view Capsiens were composed of 2 ethnic types: Mechta Lowered and Proto Mediterranean of which some think that they would have emigrated of the east. The Capsienne culture is recognized by the historians linguists like the ancestor of the Berber Langues in North Africa, and the decoration of pottery capsienne is of a great resemblance to the modern decoration of Berber pottery. Few things are known religion of Capsiens. However, their funerary practices (monticules of stones, and figurative paintings) suggest that the latter believed in a life after death.

Towards 3000 before JC Capsiens started to migrate to the south of the Tellian Atlas and settled beyond current the Batna and gradually to the borders of the Sahara which were located at the time more at North, towards current the Tamanrasset. During this same period the Sahara was quickly drained, becoming an extremely arid desert, as it nowadays is known. Algeria not having known the Bronze Age, following the example all Africa, Capsienne civilization survives until the beginning of the age of iron, with the appearance of the furnaces towards 1500 before JC. Capsiens having migrated to the Sahara leave behind them splendid cave paintings like those of the Tassili adjjer dating from the period -5000 with - 1500 or those of the area of El-Bayadh and testifying to the lifestyle, hunting, agriculture and the Capsiens rites, as of the complete draining of the Sahara which started from - 3000 and coincided with their period. The Aridité of the desert which followed this civilization made it possible to naturally preserve these works in museums at open sky and that through several millenia. Today contrast between the luxuriance of the fauna painted on these paintings and the current aridity of the desert of the Sahara still reinforces their historical and artistic attraction. Unfortunately, these paintings are nowadays threatened by the tourist frequentation of the rupestral sites of the Sahara and degradations which result from this.

Antiquity (- 1250 at year 250)

The history of Algeria in the Antiquité is marked by the emergence of the kingdoms of the Iron Age which are spread out over one period of approximately 1500 years. These kingdoms are initially the Gétules in the south of the country, and the foundation of the counters Phéniciens in North, then the Garamante S and finally the Numides.

Algeria of Gétules: (- 1250 to 250)

The people Gétule, descendant direct of the branch of civilization capsienne having emigrated in the Sahara towards 3000 av. JC are certainly the people which dominated in the way most certain Algeria lasting the 1500 years of his antiquity. They were according to the Greek historian Strabon the people most of North Africa, but also the least known.

Among the oldest references to Gétules are probably those of the Carthaginians which indicate that the prince of Gétules proposed to marry Élyssa (or Didon for the Romains), the queen founder of Carthage (current Tunisia) about the year 815 before JC.

However it should be noted that references in old Egypt of certain Gétules tribes go up until 1350 av. JC approximately under the reign of Akhénaton about which speaks about trade of cattle with these people. Gétules are probably in the beginning also Berber calendar which begins towards 943 - 949 before JC. The beginning of this calendar would make following the victory of a coalition of Gétules over the Egyptians. This coalition, formed by the Gétules tribes of the Maghreb east left the Algerian western south, reinforcing its manpower in the course of road everywhere where it passed to the Maghreb. The coalition directed by Sheshonq (name Berber: Sheshnaq) overcame the Pharaon Psousennès II. Following this victory Sheshnaq marries the girl of the Pharaon, is installed on the throne of Egypt under the name of Sheshonq into 952 before JC, and thus founds. It installs its residence with Busbatis, and detaches immediately from the regiments with Fayoum, a city or several units warlike Egyptienne are based. These last join finally with him thus confirming on the throne. Sheshnaq would have then continued its opening towards the the Middle East after having reinforced this way its coalition in Egypt, it started to conquer several territories in Syria, Palestine, Phénicie (current Lebanon) and in the Royaume of Israel where it seizes Ghaza and will plunder Jerusalem. This biblical event is mentioned in the Old Testament which speaks about the plundering of this Gétule chief of the tribe of the Machaouach.

Gétules were remarkable riders and Nomades in the beginning which concentrated in the Oasis of the Algerian central Sahara. It is probable that Gétules discovered the Cheval by the means of the Egyptians, who themselves had discovered it by the means of the people of Central Asia. It is also probable that Gétules were thorough to follow a slow migratory flux towards North, conversely with their Capsiens ancestors, by the progressive turning into a desert of the Sahara and their growing number. In any event with the wire of the centuries Gétules developed an effective cavalry, and became wandering people migrating from the Sahara towards the North of Africa while following two main roads. One is that of Gétules Eastern which carries out them towards Chella, current the Salé in Morocco, and the other is the road which carries out them desert towards Madaure (current Mdaourouch in the Wilaya of Souk Ahras). Gétules concentrated around what is today the territories of Nememchas in current the Souk Ahras and Tébessa are thus the first wandering people in Algeria to go up desert towards North to exert a pressure on the occupants of the grounds over there. Indeed more than one millenium after them, Berber the Sanhadja will imitate the same movement. Gétules wandering pastors and warriors were a long time satisfied to carry out occasional Razzia S against the sedentarized populations of the North of the country while being perpetually moving. However between, their powerful cavalry, their number impressive as their political naivety makes that they start to become the strategic object of desire on behalf of the political actors of the area.

When the First Punic War bursts in 264 av. JC the Carthaginian general Hannibal Gisco engages them as mercenaries. The main reason was that the Carthaginian navy was in a state so lamentable that Hannibal had decided to take the road to the Pillars of Hercules (current Gibraltar), it engaged the Gétule cavalry to accompany it. This one appears not only ready to quickly cross the Maghreb and without problem, but it also appears frightening effectiveness in the campaigns of Hannibal on other side of the Mediterranean, to start with its campaigns in Ibérie.

Two centuries later, Gétules had acquired great experience in the war, but especially a strong experiment in art to negotiate their force mercenary. At this point in time in 107 av. JC the king Jugurtha of Numides, combatant the Roman army makes in his turn call to the services of Gétules. Gétules before accepting, propose in Rome to better do, the consul Marius offers to the latter the promise to deliver to them grounds numides as well as the Roman citizenship in exchange of their support. Gétules fight thus at the sides of the Romans. In 103 before JC, Jugurtha is overcome. Gétules obtain the Roman Citoyenneté then in great number and of great land properties, confiscated in the State numide demolishes, at the sides of the Romains soldiers who obtain each one 252 hectares of ground. Rome seeking to benefit the maximum of this operation offers grounds numides borders some with the Maurétanie in Gétules of kind to consolidate the border of their new conquest.

The sudden sedentarisation of Gétules on the confiscated grounds is not easily accepted by the populations numides defeats. Gétules continue to support the Romans during nearly one century to crush the popular revolts, going until taking part in 19 av. JC in the repression of a revolt in the sides of Lucius Cornelius Balbus Minor. This revolt started on an impressive scale had ignited all North Africa of Maurétanie to the Cyrénaïque (current Libya) while passing by the Garamantes territories in the Sahara and Numides in North, but Balbus and its Gétules allies succeeded in crushing it.

After one century of sedentarisation, the practice of the cavalry gétule ends up disappearing, and gétule populates it with. The distribution of the grounds scattered the people gétule, and its sedentarisation contributed to the disappearance of its cavalry. The people gétule melted themselves thus in the populations of the north of Algeria. Rome had this manner made a success of a stroke master by persuading Gétules and by pushing them with disappearance by the sedentarisation, because there is not any doubt that Gétules would have constituted a serious threat for the Roman colonization in Algeria, and this particularly at the Southern borders of the current state. As from the year 250 after JC approximately, plus any references do not exist about the culture and of the people gétule.

The Phéniciens counters in Algeria (- 1250 to -146)

The Phéniciens in their efforts to extend their sales network in all the Mediterranean basin started to try to establish contacts with the populations of the North of Algeria as of 1250 before JC. After the escape of the Elyssa princess in the Eastern Maghreb (current Tunisia) which founds there Carthage in 814, the Carthaginians try to push their ships until in Ibérie (current Spain).

The coasts of the Maghreb strewn with shallow waters and Reef S being difficult to sail for the primitive ships of the Carthaginians, the latter founded with the agreement of the local populations with which they maintained the commercial links of the counters all the 30 to 40 Kilomètres along the Algerian coast, a distance equivalent to one day of navigation by the sea. Thus the counters phenicians of Annaba, Skikda, Collo, Jijel, Béjaïa, Dellys, Algiers, Tipaza, Cherchell, Tenes, Bettioua and Ghazaouet are established. These counters play a as crucial part in the trade in the Mediterranean, as in the evolution of the local cultures by the means of the exchanges of ideas and communications. These counters are used a few centuries later for Numides which will occupy them then with the Romans who colonize them and use them for the conquest of Algeria. The Carthaginians succeed so well in their trade which they establish of the counters even inside the grounds in the North of Algeria within existing localities such as the counters of Sarim Batim, that Numides call Cirta (current Constantine) or Tiddis has 17 kilometers of Cirta.

From this penetration of the Carthaginians in the middle of the African populations was to result a kind of fusion which leads at a broad ethnic and cultural community. The civilization of Carthage could have been essential little by little but in their turn certain indigenous habits marked those of Cartaginois. By this " africanisation" , which still enriches it, the punic civilsation belongs authentically to the North-African inheritance cultural.

According to Jerome Carcopino, “It is out of doubt that these colonies have, to long, formed as many hearths of a mixed civilization which, gradually, was propagated littoral towards the continent and with fact of prevailing on all North Africa, and for millenia, the spirit of Carthage. ”

The Sahara Garamantes (- 500 at year 500)

The Garamante S were people which dominated the Sahara during one millenium during the Antiquity of approximately -500 before JC with 500 after JC. The question of their exact origin remains always posed and there exist two assumptions at present. The first would like that Garamantes are the cousins of Gétules and the direct descendants of Capsiens, but which contrary to Gétules would not have emigrated towards the born coasts Méditerranéen and which would have remained on the spot in the desert to occupy the place after the migration of Gétules towards north. The other assumption would like that Garamantes are people come from another area that the Sahara (Africa sub-Saharan or Asia). The use however characters Tifinagh by Garamantes, as well as the similarity between art Garamante and art Capsien, and finally the similarity between the cavalries Garamante and Gétules probably state that Garamantes would be descendants of Capsiens and cousins of Gétules which would be in their turn sedentarized in the Sahara rather than in North.

That being said, the Garamante term would come from the name of their capital Tagharma, which would mean into Berber old (near to the capsien) “strengthened citadel”. Tagharma, or Garama in graeco-latin version would be modern Djerma. Garamantes would be originating in the area of the Fezzan (in current Libya) and would have based a kingdom extending on several tens of thousands from square kilometers in the Sahara covering of the parts of current the Algérie, Libya, Mali, Chad and Niger. The geography of their kingdom, skill of their warriors and riders, the use of Tifinagh, as well as the Domestication of the Dromadaire is not without pointing out the current confederation of the Touaregs, and it is probable that Garamantes were their direct ancestors, although that is not confirmed.

The kingdom of Garamantes lived control of the Saharan roads and had established trade route between Saharan Africa sub and the Mediterranean. Garamantes fought constantly with the black people of sub-Saharan Africa to affirm their control of these roads of trade. They also developed agriculture with the neighborhoods of their strengthened oases and became thus very powerful people and their sovereignty extended from Chad to the Fezzan, and from the Tassili to Gao at the edge of the river Niger. The Greek historian Hérodote (IV.183) wrote approximately 50 years after the beginning of their reign what follows in connection with these Saharan people:

“ At ten days of voyage of Augila, there is also a hill of salt and a source of water, the palm trees push there abundantly as they do it close to the other salt hills. This area is inhabited by people called Garamantes, very powerful people which recover salt with mud to sow his cultures then there. It is there that the road is shortest towards the country of Lotophages, a voyage thirty days. In the country of Garamantes, one finds bulls which when they feed go to move back. They act thus because their horns advance as well forwards theirs head as, if they advanced while feeding, their horns would plant themselves in the ground. It is only in that they differ from the other bulls, like by the thickness and the hardness of their leather. Garamantes have harnessed carriages has four horses, on which they pursue the Ethiopian Troglodytes who, of all the people whose echo could arrive to your ears, is that of which the feet are, by far, fastest. The Troglodytes nourish snakes, lizards and other reptiles of the same kind. Their language, contrary to that of the other people, resembles squealings of bat… ”

The Ethiopian people Troglodyte to which Hérodote refers are installed today in the solid mass of the Tibesti, and form now the ethnos group of the Toubou S. the Garamante cavalry was distinguished in the Maghreb by the fact that it massively used the tank drawn by a quartet from horses. Garamantes also carried out some times of the attacks against their neighbors of north, in particular Gétules, the Carthaginians and Numides. However their greater defeat their is inflicted by the Roman Empire, which supported by Gétules and under the direction of Balbus, consul of Africa of Rome invades their kingdom and will occupy their capital Tagharma (Garama). Garamantes maintain a certain autonomy in spite of the occupation, thanks in particular to extended from the Sahara and their return to wandering traditions. Garamantes revolt and support even the revolt of Tacfarinas in the north of the country at the beginning of the first century, but Rome ends all the same up overcoming and its influence and its supervision become considerable on these Saharien people so much so that when the Empire adopts the religion Chrétienne Garamantes make in the same way about the year 400. Garamantes disappear gradually from the historical references starting from this date, for several reasons. On the one hand with died of the Emperor Théodose Ier of Rome, the dark Roman Empire during one time of internal disorders and Garamantes find their independence, and on the other hand their kingdom having been broken, the latter do not carry out any political or strategic joint action until the advent of the Islam three centuries later, time to which they are not called already more Garamantes.

The State de Numidie: (- 250 to -25)

The period numide starts towards 250 before JC with the emergence of two tribes in the north of Algeria exits of Capsiens sedentarized since the Neolithic era: the tribe of the Massyles in the east and the tribe of the Massaesyles in the west. These tribes controlling the plains between the chain of the Atlas and the Mediterranean coast in the North of Algeria arrive quickly at confrontation.

Second Punic War

The competition begins with the come to power from Syphax in 215 av JC, king of Massaesyles. This last wants to make of its kingdom a commercial and military power, and is combined with Carthage in its fight against Rome. Syphax is however constrained in its projects by the presence of the principality of the Massyles in the East ordered by the king Zelalsen. Massyles occupy the grounds between the kingdom of Syphax and Carthage, thus Syphax decides to get rid of them. It starts the hostilities with the assistance of Carthage, it causes internal disorders at Massyles to weaken them before crushing them. Zelalsen dies quickly and is replaced by Gaia. Massyles approach Rome but balk to seal a durable alliance. Syphax suddenly makes however its first error by breaking its alliance with Carthage and while being combined in Rome which sends to three centuries soldiers to him. Carthage is then put to support Massyles, but king Gaia dies suddenly. His/her son Massinissa who at 17 years gains a victory over Syphax then crosses the Mediterranean and from there will gain additional victories over the Romans in Ibérie. Its body of cavalry made up of Massyles and Gétules proves of an excellent effectiveness under its command. When he learns that his father dies he returns from Ibérie towards the Algerian east to assume the capacity and finds there his kingdom in prey with internal conflicts. During its absence, three kings are already succédé on its throne in a few months of the year 206 before JC. (Ozalces, Capussa and Lacumazes). Massinissa notes that while it gained victories for the Carthaginians, the latter gave up its kingdom. It seizes capacity, and breaks its alliance with Carthage, changing camp and is combined in Rome. It takes part then in the side of the Romans to the battle of Matka in Carthaginois territory. The Carthaginoises troops ordered by general Hannibal succeed in a little further moving away the cavalry from Massinissa of the battle field by pushing it to an engagement. The Romaine infantry ordered by Scipion the African finds itself then wedged vis-a-vis Hannibal and does not arrive has to tip the scales on its side. However, the brilliance strategist which was Massinissa succeeds in gaining a fast victory over the Carthaginian troops and then launches its cavalry on the ground of principal battle. Its arrival makes it possible to the Romans to overcome the Carthaginian army and thus the Hannibal general was captured mainly thanks to the mischievousness of Massinissa. Carthage thus lost the second Punic War, and Massinissa controls now all is Algerian.

Massinissa engages in an ambitious plan which determines the borders of the north of modern Algeria. It makes dig with the assistance of the Romaines legions a long pit several kilometers with current the Tabarka with the East and its territories annexed to the Carthaginians in the West. It takes control thus Cirta (Constantine), and makes its capital of it. Massinissa is then harnessed to reform its kingdom, to introduce cereal agriculture, to reform the tax tax, and to consolidate its alliance with Rome at the same time as its army. Thereafter it decides to conquer the territories of Syphax, which was made some time afterwards. Syphax and Massinissa develop a competition between them, and which is centered not only on the policy but also on a woman. Sophonisbe the girl of the Carthaginian general Hasdrubal with which Massinissa was in love would have been delivered by his/her father demolishes by the troops of Massinissa with Syphax its rival. Massinissa makes convey a poison with Sophonisbe that it takes to commit suicide before consuming its marriage with Syphax to save the honor of her lover.

Unification

Massinissa then is delivered to the conquest and the dismantling of the kingdom of Syphax, which it makes a success of gradually, unifying Numidie and establishing the Western border of its kingdom on the level of the Moulouya river, near to the current border algéro-Morrocan woman. Towards 150 before JC, Massinissa directs a unified and powerful kingdom, militarily and economically which extends on all north from Algeria. It succeeded in bringing back under its cut the Gétules tribes, overcoming its Syphax rival, and sealing a solid alliance with Carthage. Old of almost 90 years, Massinissa decides to cause the fall of Carthage now itself. He seeks to push Carthage with the war, and attacks more than 70 Carthaginois villages without preventing. Carthage is seen obliged to retort to defend oneself, even if that means the violation of the peace treaty with Rome, which hastens to declare the war to him. Massinissa thus caused the Third Punic War right before dying, ordering itself its troops on the ground with more than 90 years. Carthage crumbles two years later in 148 av. JC.

The reign then the disappearance of Massinissa was the prelude to the Romaine occupation of the Numidie. Indeed, the Romaine occupation of Numidie was preceded by a long political work which was spread out over approximately a century of -125 with -25. Numidie carried out its first historical bringing together with Rome before even its unification, when Syphax king of Numidie Occidentale sealed an alliance with Rome against Carthage and Numidie Eastern. However when Syphax, for reasons which are not yet clear, decides to break its alliance with Rome gives it definitively political exchange.

Berber the numides used the word “Taferka” which meant “Ground” in the direction of “land property”, and the word “Aferkiw” to indicate that which lives on the ground in the direction of landowner. The famous maxim numide translated into Latin thereafter gave the word “Africa” to indicate the grounds of the southern part of the Mediterranean around Numidie and Carthage (later and after the Roman Empire the Européen S used the word “Africa” to indicate all the African continent).

The School of French history, one of the first to complete a constant work and largely documented on the history numide, allotted the famous maxim “Africa to the Africans! ” in Massinissa. However, the School of founded Algerian history as from 1962 seems to lean for another interpretation. Indeed according to that Ci, it would be more probable than the maxim “Africa with the Africans! ” was pronounced by Syphax and not Massinissa, when Syphax decided to break its alliance with Rome suddenly, and to be combined in Carthage the African one. The reason for which Syphax decided to separate from Rome which however seemed to have the high hand on the conflict with Carthage is still not clear. Perhaps what Syphax, as a far-sighted strategist had it understood that Rome would end up overcoming Carthage with time and that then the Roman threat would turn to Numidie? That is possible, but in any event, the Algerian school seems to think that it is more probable than it is Syphax which pronounced the maxim “Africa with the Africans! ” and not Massinissa. Massinissa, the unifier of Numidie which has demolishes Syphax thereafter, had been combined to the Romans, him which had inflicted severe defeats however in Ibérie to them. The reason for the alliance of Massinissa to the Romans is double: on the one hand the Carthaginians seemed to play a double game with its kingdom, while requiring of him to fight the Romans against money, while encouraging the political disturbances in its kingdom. In addition the defection of Syphax ends up convincing Massinissa to be combined with its enemy yesterday Rome.

The alliance of Rome with Massinissa caused deep changes in the area. Massinissa went from victories in victories, crushing Syphax, unifying Numidie, weakening Carthage with the assistance of Rome, and finally causing its ultimate destruction by Rome at the end of its reign which lasted more than one half-century. The first ancestor of the modern Algerian state, that of Numidie unified of Massinissa, was such a success under his reign that with its death, Rome could not see, and saw nothing any more but only one threat on the African coasts: this same Numidie de Massinissa.

Reign of Jugurtha

Thus after the death of large king Massinissa, a crisis of succession, sight of an good eye by Rome occurred and which placed Numidie in political disturbances. Micipsa, wire of Massinissa briefly assumed the capacity, and made send the very popular Jugurtha, grandson of Massinissa, like representative in Ibérie to move away it from the capacity. Micipsa names Gulussa viceroy and Minister for the war and Mastanabal viceroy and Minister for justice. After the short reign of Micipsa, its two sons Adherbal and Hiempsal end up again destroying all the work of unification of Massinissa by dividing Numidie into Numidie Orientale and Western. The still larval political crisis at this stage between Rome and Numidie, end up becoming public when Jugurtha, the very popular grandson of Massinissa return in Numidie and seize capacity by the force in 118 av JC, while attacking the grandsons of Massinissa (killing Hiempsal and expelling Adherbal which flees in Rome) to reunify Numidie and giving it on the way of stability and the development.

Rome which does not see an good eye this reunification, is then put to seek political problems with Jugurtha, while requiring of him to be explained on its violent takeover and the expulsion of Adherbal which took refuge on their premises. Jugurtha would have retorted in its entourage which it is a thing that it had learned from the Romans at the time of his stay in Ibérie: “Roma is urbs venalia” (transl. “Rome is a city to be bought”), thus referring to extended from the Corruption among official Romans. Thus Jugurtha is solved to buy a respite by offering money to members of the Roman political community to corrupt them. Rome then agrees to let it reign, but only provided that Numidie remains divided. It offers the diplomatic recognition to him on Numidie Western, on the condition of giving Adherbal on the throne in Numidie Orientale. Jugurtha accepted the offer of Rome initially. However, its intentions to restore Numidie unified and strong following the example that which his/her grandfather had built remains the same ones. Thus in 112 before JC, it decides to invade Numidie Orientale, thus reunifying Numidie. In the passing it makes carry out several Roman business men that it finds on the spot in Numidie Orientale. Furious the Romain government of such a development is about to declare the war to him, when Jugurtha succeeds again has to corrupt the persons in charge in place in Rome. That results in to calm animosity towards him has Rome, and to even get an advantageous peace treaty to him. However, some time later, and following some changes in the balance of power in Rome, Jugurtha is convened in Rome to be explained on the way in which it would have obtained a so suspect peace treaty. Exceeded, Jugurtha makes carry out Adherbal in answer, and the Roman political community breaks out then and ends up asking for the invasion of Numidie. Rome sends the consul Metellus in Numidie to the head of several legions to punish Jugurtha and to deposit it. Jugurtha succeeds thanks to its intelligence and with its courage attested to resist during years, by combining military operations vis-a-vis the Romans and policies with his neighbor of the west, the king Bocchus Ier of Maurétanie. The assistant of the consul Metellus, Gaius Marius foreseeing an opportunity goes back to Rome to complain about the suspect inefficiency of his chief and asks to be elected consul in his place, which it obtained. At this point in time Gaius Marius envoit his questeur, Lucius Cornelius Sulla on mission in Maurétanie to negotiate the assistance of Bocchus Ist Bocchus then agrees to betray Jugurtha, and helps the Romans to make it fall into an ambush where it is captured. Jugurtha is then sent to the famous prison of Tullianum, and is carried out immediately after the tradition of the Roman triumph in 104 before JC with the prison of Tullianum.

Colonization and cutting of the territory

After the death of Jugurtha, Numidie Western is offered to Bocchus to be added with its kingdom of Maurétanie, while Numidie Eastern is still controlled some time by princes Numides subjected to Rome. The king Gauda, half-brother of Jugurtha, was placed on the throne to succeed in first Jugurtha and reigned of 106 has 88 front JC. Then his/her son, the king Hiempsal II was placed on the throne and reigned of 88 has 60 before JC. Juba Ier arrived at the capacity at the 25 years age after having received an education in the Roman style. The arrival of Juba Ier to the capacity meant return to the legitimate royal line of Massinissa because he was the great-grandson of Massinissa and wire of king Hiempsal, itself wire legitimate of Massinissa and assassinated by Jugurtha. Juba Ier, descendant direct of Massinissa was thus placed on the throne in 60 av JC to succeed Hiempsal II. At the time of a visit in Rome, Jules César which did not carry a barb, insulted it publicly while drawing on his. Some time later, Gaius Quintus Scribonus Curio, a powerful orator (the equivalent of a member of Parliament today) Roman started to seek political problems in Numidie for the account of Jules César. Curio is resulting from a noble and rich family of which the father and the grandfather was blazing characters, but also at the same time of the powerful orators, generals and business men. Gaius Quintus Scribonus Curio was ruined to honor their memory, and made build the first Amphithéâtre of Rome in the honor of his/her father, and it celebrated several plays there over there. Crushed by the weight of the debts, Jules César proposed to him to pay his debts, provided that this last offers its support of powerful orator to him vis-a-vis Numidie, Curio accepted. Thus Curio proposed in 50 av JC du high of its platform which Numidie is quite simply sold very whole to a Romain, i.e. the country numide is privatisé. Several senators did not take Curio with serious in its business, however Jules César names it general of Africa one year later and the envoit to subject Juba Ier to make idea a reality. At the same moment, Bocchus II, king de Maurétanie and wire of Bocchus Ier, starts its armies and Numidie is found attacked on two faces. Juba Ier sends its lieutenant Sabura then to fight the troops of Bocchus II, while it goes itself against the Romaines legions directed by Curio. The counterpart numide is a total success, and while lieutenant Sabura succeeds in overcoming the armies maurétaniennes, Juba Ier crushes the Romaines legions, and captures Curio itself, that it makes carry out by his men.

Juba Ier pertinently knowing that it could not resist Jules César who had extended the borders of Rome until in Gaulle, and which seemed given to overcome quickly their chief Vercingétorix, was solved to be combined with Pompée, the military chief who had brought back his legions to the doors of Rome requiring a triumph, and which had crushed the Piraterie in the Mediterranean as well as the Révolte of Spartacus. This last also seemed to be the surest candidate for a protective alliance against Jules César because being more in opposition with him. When confrontation between Jules César and Pompée is transformed into Roman civil war in 46 before JC, Juba Ier takes part militarily in the side of Pumped in the fight against the legions of César. With the Battle of Thapsus in 46 av JC, Jules César emerges as a winner, Pompée and Juba I is thorough with the retirement. Juba Ier of return in Numidie, commits suicide with the assistance of its slave a few days later, and Numidie becomes the Roman province of Africa Nova during 16 years.

The son of Juba Ier, fore-mentioned Juba II is taken in Rome where it receives a very thorough education which enabled him to have a command of perfectly several languages at the same time. He marries thereafter Cléopâtre Selênê she also retained in Rome. Cléopâtre Selênê was the girl of Cléopâtre VII of Egypt and Marc Antoine, general and friend of Jules César. In 30 before JC, Auguste dissolves the province of Africa Nova and place the son of Juba Ier on the throne under the name of sovereign of Juba II, while hoping to obtain a new co-operation between Numidie and Rome. Juba II thus controls with his wife Cléopâtre Selênê Numidie Eastern during 5 years. However being too Romain for Numides, Juba II abdicates vis-a-vis political disturbances growing, and thus leaves Numidie with his wife, putting an end to the dynasty numide after more than two centuries of reign. Numidie Eastern returns then to its statute of Roman province under the name of Africa Nova. Juba II is then placed on the throne of Maurétanie, which preserves the territories of Numidie Western and it reigns there until the year 23. His/her son Ptolémée de Maurétanie succeeds to him the throne until the year 40, following what the emperor Caligula the fact of assassinating after having decided to make of Maurétanie a Roman Province. Caligula then separates Numidie Western from Maurétanie, and makes of Numidie Western the province of Maurétanie Césarienne which extends from the Kabylie around the current Moroccan border (river Moulouya), while Maurétanie becomes the province of the Maurétanie Tingitane.

Roman period: (- 25 to 430)

The historical interpretation of the Roman conquest in Africa, and more particularly on the territory of current Algeria, is a historical subject which was very discussed. The first modern archaeological excavations in Algeria were indeed carried out by civils servant and military French after 1830: while claiming to place itself as a heiress of the Romans, the French colonial power sought to legitimate its conquest. Also during very a long time the history of the Roman conquest was written on the model of French colonization. The decolonization and independence in 1962 allowed an important turning historiographic, marked by the publication in 1976 of the book of Maurice Bénabou on the African Résistance to the romanisation . In the important debate historiographic according to this publication of the important standpoint took place. So for Mr. Bénabou the Africans had opposed a resistance to the romanisation well, Y. Thébert insisted on the difference which existed between Roman colonization and contemporary colonization: Rome is based on the integration of the local aristocracies, Numides should not be seen only like overcome, but also as the active members of an integration with what then represented the political model dominating, and which was familiar for them since as of before the arrival of the Romans, the aristocrats numides knew the Hellenic culture well. In addition as of the conquest had started a deep human mixing between the immigrants from Italy, the veterans of the legions which had fought at the time of the civil wars in particular and the indigenous population which gives to Roman Africa her so rich and so particular aspect. The Roman conquest should not thus as well be seen like the confrontation of two people as like the resultant of the internal political tensions of the people integrated into the empire.

According to the Algerian historian Mr. Kaddache Algeria in Antiquity , the Roman exploitation caused to dislocate the Berber company and to make regress his standard of living. Its remarks strongly should however be moderated, because the Roman Africa had nothing to do with a colony with the modern direction of the term. Military forwardings were without relationship with the bloody conquest of Algeria undertaken two thousand years later and the few thousands of Italian colonists, whose many veterans were assimilated to the autochtones in one or two generations via the marriage what was unthinkable in French Algeria, becoming Romano-Africans. Cleavage between rich person and the poor was a barrier much more important than that between immigrants of origin and autochtones. Contrast was indeed often strong between the munificence of the cities, opulent and romanized, and the deep country, whose tribal communities lived remote romanisation.

Gétules which formed the majority of the Algerian population on arrival of the Romans in the year - 25 were of wandering tradition since millenia. Become of the warriors mercenaries since, the latter after having offered their services to the Carthaginians, their cousins numides and finally to the Romans were thorough with sédentariser by the latter, while the Numides sedentaries were detached their grounds and were reduced to the exodus. The stratagem used by Rome was indeed clever to reform the country and perhaps summarized in three stages.

Under Auguste (- 25 to 25)

During the first half-century of the Roman occupation in Algeria, the Roman effort consisted in breaking the social organization in the country. Indeed Gétules which had been until there nomads and this since millenia had accepted nearly one century before already, to fight at the sides of the Romans against king Numide Jugurtha, as of 118 av JC. In exchange of their important participation in the victory obtained by the Roman Legions against Jugurtha, they were seen allotting tens of hectares of ground, catches to the numides, as well as the Roman citizenship. The land property at Numides was a nodal point of the operation of their company, and celebrates it maxim “Africa with the Africans” pronounced by the king numide Massinissa (by king Syphax according to certain historians) more than two centuries before meant before very that “the Maghrebian land property must belong to the Maghrebians”… particularly in its Numide kingdom. “Taferka” (Africa) meant the land ownership at Berber Numides and “Aferkiw” (Africans) meant the landowner. Thus while dividing to reign, and by exchanging the roles of the sedentaries and the nomads in the country, Rome broke Berber social fabric in Numidie for better subjecting the inhabitants. During the same period, the numides cities, like Cirta (Constantine), the capital, were invested by Roman colonists, thus in Cirta and in the cities close much to the former mercenaries of Sittius settled.

The social reform of the country by the Roman occupation had various consequences. During this first half-century, between the year - 25 and 25, the expropriées populations numides were not solved with their fate easily, not having many alternatives. At this point in time several revolts burst. The Romans of which the number of troops was lower has 20 000 then require of Gétules to form large forces, to crush, under Roman command, these revolts. Gétules agreed to thus fight for the Romans as from this period without counterpart, i.e. by giving up their practice of the Mercenariat, because they had their land properties to thus defend now, and their social status. Thus as of 19 before JC Balbus supported by an army of Gétules crushes a revolt, before Dolabella does not make in the same way with the Gétule support once again, when a revolt directed by Tacfarinas bursts in the year 17. Tacfarinas, a descendant of landowner Numide exproprie, had at the beginning of its working life tries to survive with small employment obtained the neighborhoods of the new Romaines cities. It ends up engaging like auxiliary in the Romaine army, before becoming probably exceeded by the thin balance and the sudden discriminatory treatment by Numides. He deserted the army then, and transformed himself into plunderer and gang leader, thus revolting against the colonial order. At the end of a few years, its example and its methods were such a success that he managed to federate tribes numides Musulames, tribes Moors as well as the Cinithien S and started a general revolt against the Romans. Gétules once again had to crush this one, but at that time Rome already had annexed or transformed into vassal state, all the coast of the Maghreb until Syrte (in Libya). Thus the revolt of Tacfarinas was propagated in all Maghreb, and it took 8 years for the Romans and for their Gétules allies to crush it.

The revolt was so popular that even Garamantes of the Sahara supported Tacfarinas and several Gétules made defection and joined the forces of this last. Reason for the defection of these Gétules being that with each time the latter were called with the war they behind them their farms left, which did not produce as much any more, and they then found private incomes to pay their taxes. Some ended up collapsing under the debts and had to sell a part or all their exploitation, and it is this constant practice of the war and its cost which carried out unquestionable Gétules to join the camp of Tacfarinas. However the majority of Gétules could maintain their profitable businesses grace in particular to releases of imposition on behalf of the Roman administration which included/understood quickly requires it of such a measurement, which tipped the scales on the side of Rome which crushed the revolt of Tacfarinas with the assistance of Gétules in the year 24.

Year 25 at year 100

The multiple revolts which thus followed the dislocation of the local company by the Romans pushed the latter to engage a second phase to strengthen their presence in Numidie and to stabilize their new colony. This second phase of the Romain stratagem which extended over 75 years, consisted in getting an alternative to the constraint and the famine which was profiled at the horizon for tens of thousands of citizens numides expropriés of their grounds and laid out with the revolt. Thus Rome encouraged the veterans of its legions on the spot to occupy the old sites of the numides cities destroyed such as Icosium (Algiers) or Cirta (Constantine), and to rebuild them in the Roman style, while melting of new military stations which was to become cities, like Sitifus (Sétif) or Timgad (of which there remains today only of splendid ruins). The Roman governors did not intend to limit themselves to build barracks for the army after having shaved the Numides cities, but hoped well to set up complete cities, equipped with temples, amphitheaters, etc At this point in time between the year 40 and the year 90, several new cities Roman were built such as Thamugadi (Timgad), Sitifus (Sétif), or even rebuilt on the site of the old Numides cities such as Tipaza (old Tafza Numide), Icosium (Algiers), Caesarea, Cirta (which will become Constantine), Hippo Regius, etc the Roman ruins through Algeria which survive until today still testify some, as it is the case with Tipaza where almost all the city is preserved and where the amphitheater seems to remain intact. To build these cities, them to populate, and romaniser the local population, the Romans voluntarily accommodated on their building sites, then within their cities, the waves of downward citizens numides for the majority of their parents who were expropriés and who were dedicated to the nomadism since… new thing for them and which had suddenly propelled them in extreme poverty, the famine or if not plundering and the revolt. Thus Algeria lived its first Rural migration, and that these cities quickly became centers of trade and culture. The interior grounds then under Gétule control were going to be found then attached to the populated cities of Numides by the trade, and extension to the market of the various provinces of the Roman Empire. To solidify and protect this new configuration from the country, the Romans then urged the construction of a border strengthened by establishing several stations in the south of Numidie, circumventing the Aurès and the country of the Nememchas, with the forts of Vescera (Biskra), AD Raise (Hensir Beseriani), Castellum Dimidi (Messaad). The goal of these forts was to secure the province against possible attacks of Garamantes, to protect the stability and the found prosperity of the Numides territories at the time when Garamantes underwent the colonial attacks of Rome.

Year 100 at year 235

With a new firmly anchored social configuration, and a new commercial device opening in Numidie the markets empire Romain, the third stage of the stratagem of Romaine colonization came all alone. It was that of economic development and industrialization during 135 years. Indeed, vis-a-vis the always increasing demand for agricultural produce of any kinds on behalf of the Roman cities in Numidie, the landowners gétules and Romans militarily had a labor expropriée and reduced to the constraint, as well as land of big size and fertile properties. Although most of the selected population numide to move towards the cities, several tens of thousands of other Numides chose to remain on the farms which had belonged to their parents, like servants of the new owners Gétules and Romains. Thus, on grounds of a remarkable fertility, the new landowners could allow themselves to propose extremely competitive prices on the market of the Roman Empire thanks to this fertility but also has a labor reduced to the constraint and not expensive. Once the new built Roman cities, the Roman veterans and the new Numides townsmen who were established there charged in their turn consuming the products of the interior of the country, and with importing manufactured goods such as agricultural tools for the Algerian campaigns. But economic takeoff will come especially from the export of the excess of agricultural production, which proposed at low prices, towards the foreigner. Thus at the end of one century of Roman occupation, the majority of the Roman cities were set up and that at the end of two centuries, Algeria of the time ends up obtaining the title of “attic of Rome” so much its exports of Blé became impressive in quantity (up to ten million quintals of corn per annum) and in price. The production diversified gradually and started to include the Cuir, the Olive S, the Figue S, and a beginning of industry set up towards second half of the second century with a production of oil olive, Vin, etc, always increasing. In year 175, Numidie, after two centuries of Roman occupation which had made run much blood, nevertheless had become a prosperous province, relatively urbanized, and where the Berber population had been mainly integrated. Gétules were integrated very early in the Empire, and most of Numides became town and were integrated also just as easily. That was done of course with the detriment of the Berbères cultures of Gétules and Numides, because the known country a deep Romanisation of the population. But in against part that allowed Berber to unify, the Numides-Gétules differences to grow blurred and Berber romanized to reach the high positions of the Roman State. Thus for example one of them, coming from a rich person town Berber family of Ceasarea (Cherchell), social class of Equestrian (Knights) reached the high positions of the Empire. Indeed, Amokrane, Berber romanized became Roman Emperor in the year 217 under the name of Marcus Opellius Macrinus.

The time of the disorders (of year 235 at year 395)

The political disturbances which burst with the more political high level of the Roman Empire about the year 235 reflect a brake with the Economic growth of Rome, which struck the economy of Numidie of full whip. The cities then stopped growing and the campaigns did not manage any more to run out their production, and soon the country just like found in a decline Rome itself. In the year 238 the Gétules owners complained about the tax imposition high in this atmosphere of economic regression, but their complaint did not accept favorable answers. Whereas nothing was done to cure the political disturbances and the economic crisis which settles in time, several small rebellions start between 253 and 288 as well in Numidie as in Maurétanie neighbor. For this period, a news Religion arrives from Rome. The Christianisme makes its entry in the year 256, and during the next century, in an atmosphere of growing decline, the populations of the Algerian coastal towns, as well as a minority of the population in the campaigns convert with the new religion. In 313, with the political crises and economic Roman which last for ever, the new religion becomes a weapon which will be used as religious alibi with a new revolt which will be once again Maghrebian. But this time the revolt is nun and political. Indeed, the worship Donatiste developed in Algeria and Tunisia like a political distrust in Rome. Donatiste refusing to accept the religious authority of the Emperor, and requiring the separation of the State and the religion, will end up declaring the emperor as being the devil in person, contrary to Jesus which they consider being God and they reject the catholic rite from there. The Emperor envoit then his troops to reduce them to silence, in what is the first persecution of Christians against Christians. Repression did nothing but increase the popular support of Donatistes at the people and in 321 the legions Romaines come to repress Donatistes were withdrawn. However about year 340, the Donatiste ideology gives birth has a popular sect, those of Circumcellions, literally those which encircle the farms. As the Donatiste worship celebrated the virtues of the Martyr, Circumcellions became extremists which regarded only the martyr as being the true Chrétienne virtue and left side all the other values of their religion such as humility, the Charité, etc Circumcellions are then reflected to be provided with wood bludgeons, refusing to carry iron weapons, because Jesus had told Pierre to pose his sword according to the Christian tradition. Thus, provided with their bludgeons, they are reflected to attack the travellers on the roads of the country, then to move on the farms of the landowners, to encircle them and attack them. The goal of Circumcellions was to die in the combat as a martyr, and they hoped that their violent attacks provided with wood bludgeons only would push their enemies to be counteracted with more sophisticated weapons and to thus send them to the paradise. These extremists killed, violated, flew, several landowners and their families, as well as the travellers, and when they were not able to be made kill, they ended up committing suicide while trying to jump of the top of a cliff, which precipitated them with their death. The sect of circumcellions violently repressed disappeared about the 4th century. This skid of the worship donatist resulted in to blacken even more their reputation in Rome.

Year 395 at year 430

Whereas into the year 395 the empire is divided into two and that North Africa is abandoned with its fate Donatistes take again their attempt to dominate the political scene and religious moreover. Finally exceeded, the emperor of Rome declares them in the year 409, Hérétique S and their advertisement to restore all the churches in their possession in North Africa. He sends several legions which are of a terrible ferocity towards the religious leaders of the worship, and sometimes even towards the members among the people. Holy Augustin, who was then the catholic bishop of Annaba tried to protest the anger of the Roman administration, while pleading for a more human treatment of Donatistes. That was not used for large thing, and Donatistes disappeared almost completely, only a tiny community surviving in clandestinity until the 6th century. A few years later in 430, it is all the Roman Empire which withdraws Algeria under the pressure of the Vandals who invade the country. The August 28th 430, Saint Augustin one of the last symbols of the integration of the population within the Roman Empire finds death during the head office of Annaba by the Vandals who invaded the country.

But assessment of presence Roman, that only very partially the Byzantines restore when they conquer Africa from 533, is very largely positive: Rome gave rise to well to it an original civilization.

Domination Vandal (430 to 533)

The history of the Vandales is that of a coalition of tribes Scandinavian constantly attacked, pushed back and forced to leave its grounds, and which ends up being solved with the combat, thus obtaining their first State that they found in Algeria after having established their capital with Bejaia, in the Petite Kabylie. When their State disappears after one century from existence, the people vandal are integrated then into the Algerian population.

Vandals: origin at year 430

Towards 200 before JC, a wave of Scandinavian tribes had started to cross the the Baltic, to unload on the territories of current the Poland. Thus, about the same period during which the State de Numidie continued in Algeria, that is to say between the year - 200 and the year -120, the Vandals arrived of Norway (Hallingdal), of Sweden (Vendel) and of the Denmark (Vendsyssel) to settle in the area of Silesia, which corresponds today to the border region between the Poland and the Czech Republic. The Vandals, divided into two great tribal groups, Silingi and Hasdingi, separated from there. Silingi remained in the area of Magna Germania which is that of Silesia, while Hasdingi continued their migration and moved towards the West to settle in the historical area of Germanic Eastern (between the river Oder and the river the Vistula). Gaius Cornelius Tacitus, one of the most known Roman historians indeed notes their presence into Germanic Eastern in year 98. Between year 100 and year approximately 200, the Hastings Vandals found themselves under the pressure of Goths who arrived and settled into Germanic Eastern, and that of the Roman Empire. The Vandals were then growths to leave the Germanic Eastern one under the pressure of Goths which were established in the area and went down towards the the Danube where they tackled the Romain empire. The Romans then, sign a draft of peace with them, and authorize them with living and being established in Central Europe, Dacie (current Romania) and in Roman Hungary.

Two hundred years later however, and under the pressure of Huns, Vandals, as their combine Sarmates Alains and their Germanic allies Suèves, were obliged to move towards the West to flee. Some ones of the Silings Vandals who had settled in Silesia for a few centuries joined them, and all these tribes were placed under the direction of the king Vandale Godégisel. The federation of the tribes known as Vandales became thus very broad, and during this period Christianity like religion adopted. The Christianity which the Vandals adopted however be Arianisme which was in opposition with the doctrines of the Trinity preached by Rome. The Vandals moved thus in the West while following the Danube without too much difficulty and penetrated in Gaulle where the federate francs of the Empire refused the passage to them. The Francs killed 20000 Vandals during these engagements including king Godegisel. However, thanks to the assistance of Alains, the Vandals ended up overcoming the forces of the Empire, and crossed the cold Rhine the December 31st 406. Under the direction of the king Gundoric, wire of Godisel, the Vandals then crossed Gaulle of north to the south by plundering the territories of Aquitaine.

In October of the year 409, alliance vandal crossed the the Pyrenees. The Romans then authorized them officially to settle in Ibérie, and offered to Alains the Lusitanie (Portugal), and to the Vandals the Galicia as well as Low Spain ( Hispania Baetica ). There the Vandals, charmed to have finally their territory, and thinking of establishing their State baptize it Wandalus (Ground of the Vandals) which becomes later the arabo-Berber “Andalusia”, then Spanish. Their peace was of short duration, and a few years later, the Visigoths, one of the two large tribes Goths (the other being the Ostrogoths), which they had already flees once, are reflected to invade the Iberian peninsula. In 426 the Alains allies of the Vandals were made massacre in the north of the peninsula and their king Attaces found death during this attack. At this point in time Alains will take refuge in the south among Vandals in Wandalus and offer their crown has the latter. Gunderic, king of the Vandals accepts then, consequently baptizing “Rex Wandalorum and Alanorum” (King of the Vandals and Alains).

Vandals in North Africa: From 430 to 477

In order to organize a new migration vis-a-vis the beachcomber Visigoths, the new king Genséric, who succeeded has his half-brother king Gunderic, as king of the Vandals and Alains, made build an enormous fleet to make cross to the tribes the Straits of Gibraltar. Thus in 429, more than 80000 Vandals and Alains, whose 20000 men-at-arms, led by their king Genséric I, cross the Straits of Gibraltar and unload in Maurétanie. Following year in 430, the latter are already in the Algerian west.

The Vandals find on the spot a population favorable to the Christian theses which reject the dogma of the Roman Trinity and dispute the divine filiation of Jesus. Indeed the Berber ones of the crop rich person years of antan, who are being at the time in full economic crisis, leave the free passage to this impressive armed Vandale, who seems in their eyes to avenge the fact that Rome has just declared twenty years before (into 409) their beliefs mutual like heresies. Indeed the donatism which prevails in the Maghreb, is similar, even more extreme in its tendency of the refusal of the authority and the dogmas of the Catholic church that the Arianisme followed by the Vandals. Arianisme being with origin lesson of priest Arius of church of Alexandria of Egypt (church Copte) which taught that Jesus was a man like all the others, rather than the son of God. The Vandals thus concentrated their attacks on the coastal towns under Roman influence, and where the Catholic church had been seized of the Donatistes churches. They offer moral complicity consequently, even the material support of the Berbères populations of the north of Algeria. During the year the 430 Vandals thus cross the country of West in Is, assailing the various Roman citadels or the catholic priests lately installed in the churches donatists are present. The August 28th 430, the Vandals take Hippone (current Annaba) after a short seat of the last city of the East of Algeria. By taking this city, they would have killed the Berber catholic bishop, Saint Augustin.

The Vandals thus started to establish their authority on all the cities of the north of Algeria, sending the catholic clergy in exile to Gafsa in the Tunisian south, killing sometimes certain members of the Catholic church, and dissolving the monasteries. The town population is summoned to discharge dîme in exchange it right to be left in peace and to be able to practice Catholicism. The Vandals will not martyriseront however the catholics, and compared with the way in which certain catholic prelates treat with these times their flocks recalcitrant, their treatment of the catholics is little of things. However to alleviate them, Rome into 435 authorizes them, to be established once again officially on one of its territories, this time, on the remainders of Numidie. Genséric then establishes the capital of its new State with Saldae (Bejaia) which it captured with the Romans, and where it makes accost the ships vandals which were used to make cross Gibraltar to its people. Genséric then makes strengthen its new capital before launching out in other projects of expansion. Extremely of their new power, of their domination of the coastal towns, and a complicity with the interior of the country the Vandals refuse this time Ci to stop in if good way, and attack Carthage in 439, seat of the Catholic church of Africa, that they capture. Removed from the presence of the catholic Roman Church in the Maghreb, the king Geiséric I of the Vandals then starts to build the kingdom of the Vandals and Alains.

Launching its naval attacks starting from its Bejaia capital, Genséric engages in the conquest of the large islands of the Western Mediterranean. It quickly captures the Sicily, the Sardinia, the Corsica and the Balearic Islands, thanks to the immense naval fleet which it had made build a few years earlier. Rome, vis-a-vis these new military pressures Vandals, offered an peace agreement to Genséric in exchange of the return of Sicily in the bosom of the Empire. Become more pragmatic than religious with so much of new dominions, formless Genséric in the year 442, Valentinien III, Roman Emperor of Occident which it accepts the offer and restores Sicily in Rome.

The respite that Genséric offers to the Romans is however only of short duration. In 455, this last launches out in operations against the Western Roman empire, and, on June 2nd, its armies penetrate in Rome. The Vandals set out again with rich person taken, of which several gold trunks, vestiges of the temple of Jerusalem, as well as the empress Licina Eudoxia. This one refuses to go back to Rome, and marries Genséric to become the mother of the future king of the Vandals: Hunéric. The two girls of the empress, Eudocia and Placidia, also taken during the bag of Rome, are released in 462 against a strong ransom paid by the Byzantine emperor Leon I.
It is this plundering of Rome “Eternal City”, which is mainly reproached to the Vandals to create their bad reputation, although this plundering was carried out in good order, without any maltreatment against the population. Whereas the bag of Rome, much more brutal by the Visigoths in 410 was not retained against them.
As of their installation in Algeria these riders, become sailors, grace initially to the important fleet built by Geiséric which enabled them to cross the Straits of Gibraltar and to settle there. The Vandals can consequently allow themselves to multiply forwardings in all Mediterranean, as far as Greece. But their plundering of Rome is a methodical model of spoliation, without free violence. They indeed guarantee the respect of the population in exchange of the taking away of the richnesses in each district of the city, private of defense. For this purpose, they divide Rome into small islands, moving the treasures of each small island in good order and without pouring blood. But for the medieval catholic clerks, Rome is the center of the World. Also they for the posterity transform this plundering into sacrilege, making to the Vandals a reputation cruelty. From where the term of vandalism, whereas the Vandals are not crueler than the other people of this hard and warlike time. In 468, the Byzantines send an enormous fleet to attack the kingdom of the Vandals, but the latter succeed in almost entirely destroying it and thus gain a new victory.

Vandals in Algeria (477-533)

With died of Genséric Ier, founder of the kingdom in 477 which reigned nearly one half-century on its people, the Vandals begin their decline. His/her Huneric son who takes the succession exerts pressures on the catholics, particularly during the last months of his reign in 483 and 484 where it prohibits the practice of Catholicism straightforwardly. Gunthamund which succeeds to him in 484 reconsiders the decisions of its predecessor and authorizes the Catholics to be practiced freely in exchange of traditional the dîme. However its reign is marked by a loss of influence for the Vandals, who lose territories in the Mediterranean and which are made attack by certain Berber tribes which do not appreciate any more their presence. Thrasamund succeeds to him in 496 and reigns until 523 without being able for as much giving on foot the kingdom.

Hilderic arrived at the capacity in the year 523, but ignored as well the war itself, as it let its Hoamer general take care some. This last loses a battle against tribes of the interior of the country in 530, and that causes a power struggle within the royal family. Gélimer seizes the capacity then and throws king Hilderic and his Hoamer general in prison.

Three years later, the Byzantine emperor Justinien Ier profits owing to the fact that the majority of the fleet vandal is in Sardinia occupied repressing a rebellion, to declare the war with the latter. He sends the general brilliance Bélisaire to the combat. The September 13rd 533, 11000 Vandals under the command of their king Gélimer faced the 17000 men of the army of Byzance to the battle of AD Decimium. The Vandals lost the battle and Carthage fell to the hands from the Byzantines. One month later, it was with the tower of the first city of the Maghreb Central to be lost by the Vandals with the Byzantines. December 15th, 533 the Vandals and the Byzantines clashed again with 30 kilometers of Carthage and the Vandals lost the battle again. The Byzantines seized then Hippone (Annaba). The Vandals are not any more the same ones. Accustomed to comfort, even with the Luxury, they lost their warlike quality little by little, and celebrates it Cavalerie vandal, formerly so much dreaded, is mainly destroyed. Gélimer manages to flee while the survivors vandals, put in Esclavage, are mainly off-set, while a few thousands are enlisted of force in the armies of the Empire. In 534, Gélimer, went to Belisarius, and gave the kingdom to the Byzantine Empire. Gelimer was sent to Byzance and finishes its days in Galatie. It was the end of the kingdom of the Vandals and Alains.

The surviving Vandals who escape the capture manage to find refuge in the interior of the country, at allied Berber tribes (especially into current Kabylie, around their first capital Bejaia), while a terrible repression strikes the Jews of which a part emigrates with them in the interior. These Jews then propagate their religion there among the mountain and Saharan tribes like among the last Vandals.

Byzantine domination (534-647)

The passage of the Vandals and the Alains in Africa leaves only very few traces but one century of bonds cut with Rome then with Byzance radically changed the spirits of the indigenous S of which much will not accept the Byzantine domination which must quickly count on the many attacks of revolted Berbères as at the time of the revolt of Antalas just after the Byzantine reconquest. The brittleness of this reconquest “flash” and the instability of the Byzantine domination makes it possible the Berber tribe S to organize the resistance against the “occupant”.

Period: Islamization of Algeria (647 to 776)

Caliphate omeyyade (647 to 743)

Berbérie, as it had been formerly during the period Punique, is found attached to the East. Islam extinguishes this torch of the western world and Christianity. The Berber ones fled massively on arrival of Islam while taking refuge in Sicily.

The fall of Rome, then Vandals, and instability during the Byzantine period involve the reconstitution of several Berber principalities. Some, in particular in the Aurès, will resist on arrival of the Musulman S between 670 and 702.

The most known figures of this conflict were the Christian king Koceila, which overcame Oqba Ibn Nafaa in 689, close to Biskra, then the warlike queen Kahena (of its true name Dihya), which with the head of Berber (Djerawa of Aurès and Nefoussa de Tripolitaine) like of Roums of the coast, inflicted, in 693, with the Bataille of Meskiana, a severe defeat with the Arab task force of the emir Hassan Ibn in Noman, which it pushed back until in Tripolitaine. But it partly lost the following battle because of the treason of a young Arab whom it had adopted (Khaled) and partly because its men, wanting to make the ground burned to discourage the invasion, caused the opposition of the Roums farmers who passed on the Arab side. Kahena dies in the combat in the current one Is Algerian (Well of Kahena, “Bir Al Kahena”).

Many Berber is converted then into mass with the Islamic religion. Some adopt even the language of the conquerors, especially in the East of the Ifriqya. The Moslem conquest of the Spain and the south of the France which followed was carried out by a Berber quota almost entirely composed of recent converts, to start with his chief Tariq ibn Ziyad, who gave his name to the hill of Gibraltar (Djebel Tarik). The Caliph rewarded Tarik for his exploits, by being made it send connected. He died on the way. As for Arab immigration in North Africa, it was not very important, except in two areas external to Algeria, that of Kairouan and that of Tangier. It was added to it later on the arrival in certain areas of the south, at times of Ibn Khaldoun, of terrible, but very few, Bedouin the Hilaliens. So that on the whole the settlement of Algeria received only one limited Arab demographic contribution, and than most of the populations Arabic-speaking people is Berber.

Berber revolt (743 to 776)

The Berber ones are not long in revolting against the authority of the Caliph of the East, as much for tax reasons that political. Several autonomous Berber kingdoms make their appearance. In the central Maghreb, one of them, the principality of Tahert develops during 140 years. Following large the Schisme of the Islam, when `Ali, son-in-law of the prophet disputing the caliphate with Muawiya, accepted a transaction, following which Muawiya was victorious, Islam was divided into two principal branches: the followers of the dominant branch took the name of Sunnites and those which were claimed of Ali became the Chiites. Of these two branches, that which finally prevailed in North Africa is the sunnism.

It was not always thus since at the time of the schism, the branch Shiite was in its turn the object of a scission: some of the partisans of Ali reproached him for having accepted the compromise with Muawiya and 12 000 of its men left his army. Their tendency took the name of Kharidjisme. The kharedjism developed thereafter with a great width in North Africa, where it was accommodated with heat by the many Berber ones. Their revolt began with Tangier, where, in 742, during a combat close to Chéliff, qualified of “Combat of Noble”, perishes most of the task force intended to reinforce the Moslem penetration in France. It is thus not the victory of Charles Martel, with it only, which stopped the Moslem conquest in France, since the Moors took Lyon, three years later. (the battle of Poitiers gained by Charles Martel, the grandfather of Charlemagne, was probably exaltée, after the catch of the Crown of the Francs by the Carolingians, to legitimate their accession with the throne) .

Another phenomenon, the Schisme kharidjite took root not only in religious enthusiasm, but also in the popular discontent. A great disorder and combat very violent one ensanglantèrent North Africa. These massacres and these devastations involved, inter alia consequences, the creation of the kingdoms of the Morocco and Tiaret, as well as the come to power of the dynasty Shiite of the Fatimides.

As for the karedjism, it disappeared entirely from North Africa where there remained only in the Algerian south, with the Mzab. The current originating ones in Mzab, or Mozabites, exert nowadays, in the remainder of Algeria, the most peaceful activities, contrasting particularly with the taste for the combat of their ancestors.

Period: Berber Moslem dynasties: (776 to 1512)

Dynasty Rostemide (776 to 909)

Dynasty Fatimide (909 to 972)

Ziride dynasty: (972 to 1152)

The dynasty Ziride, founded by Bologhine ibn Ziri wire of Ziri ibn Menad originating in these Berber tribes Sanhadja S, reigned on the Ifriqiya, during approximately two centuries, with successively Kairouan then Mahdia for Capitale.

In 1046, then vassal of the Fatimides, Zirides break their relations completely; by recognizing the Abbasid legitimate Baghdad like Caliph S, Zirides openly show in Fatimides that they give up the Shiism. To repress Zirides, Fatimides send in 1052 the Hilaliens which destroy Kairouan in 1057. Mahdia then becomes the new capital of the empire.

Hilaliens devastated the Berber country , which pushed of Zirides in Al-Andalus which charmed the Taifa Grenade.

A ramification of the family reigns on Grenade until in 1090. This taifa was the first form of the Royaume of Grenade, which could be maintained for one century in the context of larval wars making following the end of the Western Califat. Their fortress, built on the Albaicín of the primitive Medina, is the first refuge of the Nazaris. The latter have more time to leave their print on the country surrounding Grenade.

Last prince Ziride dies in 1048 however it is in 1152, in Algérie, that the Zirides last yield vis-a-vis the Almohades.

Incursions hilaliennes (1052 to 1152)

Following the rupture with Zirides and with an aim of punishing them, Fatimides send the Hilaliens, confederation of tribes come as a majority from Egypt, but also some Berbères come from Tripolitaine. Fatimides get rid in same time of tribes menaçantes.

Hilaliens, by successive waves, carried out incursions into the big cities, plundering then destroying all on their passages. Their numbers not exceeding a few tens of thousands of people, they were however sometimes combined with certain local tribes of the Zénètes.

The last nomads hilaliens were overcome by the Almohades.

Dynasty Hammadide (1014 to 1152)

The dynasty Hammadide, a branch of the Zirides since its founder Hammad Ibn Bologhine is the son of Bologhine ibn Ziri, controlled on a territory corresponding about to current the Algérie (except the Sahara) during one century and half.

Hammad Ibn Bologhine, founded the dynasty in 1014, while being declared independent of the Zirides, and by recognizing the legitimacy of the caliphs Abbassides of Baghdad. A cease-fire is concluded in 1016, but it is only in 1018, that Zirides recognize the authority of Hammadides.

Their capital is initially Al-Qala (the Kalaa of Beni Hammad), when threatened by Hilaliens it becomes Béjaïa.

The incursions of the Hilaliens, starting from 1052, largely weaken the dynasty until it is definitively overcome on arrival of the Almohades.

Dynasty Almoravide (1062 to 1147)

{magnifying glass|Almoravides}

The Almoravides (in Arab Al-Murābitūn, المرابطون) are a Berber dynasty , coming from the the Sahara, which reigned on the the Sahara, part of the the Maghreb and most of the Iberian peninsula (Al-Andalus) (fine 11th century-beginning 12th century).

It is Yahya Ibn Ibrahim, which, by Islamizing in 1035 its tribe Berber, gives rise to a military religious community which will be at the origin of the Almoravide dynasty, but it is often Abdallah Ibn Yasin which is regarded as the spiritual father of this movement. With the head of an increasingly impressive army it converts by the force its neighbors, benefitting from the pretext to increase their territorial influence. Dice 1054, they leave to the conquest the Empire Ghana.

The successor of Abdallah Ibn Yasin, Abu Bakr Ibn Omar is regarded as the first sovereign almoravide. It is him, which, in the neighborhoods of 1070, will found the town of Marrakech, before setting out again in Ghana to take its capital in 1076. The following sovereigns will continue the aggressive policy of military and religious conquest carried out until there, driving with the catch of Fès and Tlemcen in 1075 and 1080. In 1086, with the Arab princes of Spain, the almoravides inflict a severe defeat with Alphonse VI of Castille during the Bataille of Sagrajas. Marrakech is then the capital of an immense empire, Niger with the Tage, it is the apogee of Almoravides which is one of the more Mediterranean great powers but also African.

But the empire is weakened by resistance of the Christian princes and especially to the agitation of the Almohades, adversaries of the Malékisme, which preached the holy war against Almoravides. In 1142, agitation almohade is with its roof and the territories of Al-Andalus are parcelled out. The empire almoravide, increasingly fragmented, undergoes a defeat vis-a-vis Almohades close to Oran. The catch of Marrakech by the Almohades in 1147 mark end of the empire of Almoravides.

Almohade dynasty: (1152 to 1247)

Zianide dynasty: (1235 to 1512)

The Zianide dynasty or Abdalwadide, founded in 1236 by Yghomracen Ibn Zyan, will reign until in 1512 on the west of the especially known Algérie for their development of their capital Tlemcen.

(...)

Hafside dynasty: (1229 to 1574)

The dynasty Hafside, will reign on the Ifriqiya during more than 3 centuries.

Initially vassal of the Almohades, the dynasty proclaims independent in 1229. It is then divided between two capitals Béjaïa and Tunis. Throughout the 14th century, the empire then unified by Abu Yahya Abu Bakr Al-Mutawakkil, sudden of the reorganizations in two even three States, because of many internal revolts make the empire unstable. It is at the 15th century, under Muhammad IV Al-Mutansir, that the dynasty knows its apogee, the hafsides then control a territory which extends from the east of the Algérie starting from Algiers until the North-West of the Libya to Tripoli.

At the 16th century, the empire largely weakened again by internal struggles, undergoes the attacks of the Spaniards who unload on the coastal towns like Béjaïa, and of the Turks.

Period: Regency of Algiers (1515 to 1830)

Selim Ier installs the Period of Regency in 1515.

At that time the territory of current Algérie was divided considerably. In the south the sultanate of Touggourt was independent since 1414, while in the North-West the area of Oran was controlled by the Spaniards since 1509. The Othoman conquest of the area of Algiers started in 1518, and was successively controlled, on behalf of the Ottoman Empire, by beylerbeys (general governors) of 1518 to 1587, pashas of 1587 to 1659, aghas of 1659 to 1671 and deys of 1671 to 1830.

The area of Constantine, conquered in 1525, took a relative administrative autonomy compared to Algiers in 1567 and was managed by beys until the French conquest on October 13rd, 1837. Side of Oran, the province was annexed to the Ottoman Empire of 1708 to 1732, then as from 1792. Lastly, a confederation targuie, the Kel Ahaggar, was formed in the Algerian Sahara about 1750, fell under French suzerainty in 1903 and was eliminated by Algeria in 1977.

See also: List of the governors of Algiers

Time of Beylerbeys: (1515 to 1587)

This period is especially marked by the fight of Charles Quint against Soliman and his vassal Barberousse. It succeeds in taking Tunis but failed to take Algiers.

See also: Attack of Algiers per Charles Quint

Time of the Pashas: (1587 to 1659)

Time of Aghas: (1659 to 1671)

Time of the Deys: (1671 to 1830)

The territory of the Dey was subdivided in three provinces (Constantine, Titteri, and Mascara), each one managed by a bey.

Towards 1600, the Turkish militia which resided at Algiers, and which had been up to that point under the authority of a pasha sent Constantinople, obtained from the sultan the permission to give itself a dey, to be used to him as support against the tyranny of the pashas governors.

The capacity of these chiefs increased quickly; finally Baba-Ali, elected in 1710, deposited the pasha, and obtained from the sultan Ahmet III the nomination of regency. As their capacity was elective, the deys always remained at the thank you of the army rabble, which raised them or deposited them with its liking: one saw six of them installed and assassinated the same day (1732). Baba-Mohammed had only the privilege to reign 25 years (1760 - 1791). The last dey d' Alger, Hussein, had reigned for 12 years at the time of the French occupation, in 1830.

The first steps of colonization can be perceived since 1816, when the Royal Navy, inspired by Sir Sidney Smith subjected the wearing of Algiers and imposed the suspension of the sale of Christian slaves in the Maghreb, the Moslem Traite extending from the Black Africa until the North of the Mediterranean.

French colonization (1830 to 1962)

Conquest of Algeria: 1830 to 1871

This period marks the end of the Othoman domination and beginning of the French domination. Initially named French Possessions in the North of Africa , that the general Soult calls with any chance Algérie in 1839, these territories will take officially the name of Algeria, on October 14th, 1839.

This period is initially the business of the soldiers. The Colonisation of the Algérie by France was bloody since the conquest resulted in the extermination of the third of the Algerian population. To give an idea of violence with which the indigenous populations were treated let us quote the Lieutenant-colonel of Montagnac, the March 15th 1843, which wrote in a letter with a friend: all the populations which do not accept our conditions must be shaven. All must be taken, ransacked, without reference to age nor of sex: the grass should not push any more where the French Army put the foot. Who wants the end wants the means, though our philanthropists say some. All the good soldiers whom I have the honor to order are warned by myself that if it is able to them to bring me an alive Arab, they will receive a flight of blows of dish of saber. Here, my honest friend, how it is necessary to make the war with the Arabs: to kill all the men until the fifteen years age, to take all the women and the children, with of to charge the buildings, to send them to the Marquesas Islands or elsewhere. In a word, to destroy all that will not crawl with our feet like dogs. .

Daniel Lefeuvre, in his book to finish with the colonial repentance of it, question figures of the victims of the conquest while advancing in particular that the difference of population between 1830 and 1872, which is of approximately: 875000 people, would be partly due to the fact that of 1861 at 1872 there were several medical crises: invasions of Grasshopper S in 1866 and 1868 and a very rigorous winter (1867 - 1868) causing a low register Famine followed epidemics (of Cholera in particular). But according to Olivier the Court Grandmaison, the colonization of Algeria resulted well in the extermination of the third of the population, whose causes are multiple, massacres, deportations, famines or epidemics, but closely dependant between them. What prohibits to hold the two last for natural phenomena without relationship with the fatal pacification of this territory and testifies to the exterminating dimension of the company.

Guy of Maupassant, subtle humanistic however, wrote in With the sun (1884), account of its Algerian ground peregrinations in particular, speaking about the indigenous population: It is certain also that the primitive population will disappear little by little; it is indubitable that this disappearance will be extremely useful for Algeria, but it is revolting that it takes place under the conditions where it is achieved . This opinion concerning the probable disappearance of a population and the interest to see it occurring would shock today so much so that anybody could not to with it be held; at the time of the colonial expansion, it could be enough common to be extremely banal.

Under Charles X

By undertaking this forwarding, Charles X has only one goal: to save its crown. The Restauration exhausted thinks of regilding its blazon while escarmouchant against the dey . But it has also another effect: To remove the the Mediterranean from the Barbaresque pirates and to put an end to the traffic of Christian slaves.

The Business of the range

The origin of the quarrel between France and the regency of Algiers goes back to the Directoire. Jewish tradesmen of Libourne, Bacri and Busnach then delivered important quantities of grains to nourish the soldiers taking part with Bonaparte to the countryside of Italy. Bonaparte refuses to pay the invoice which he considers excessive. In 1820, Louis XVIII sponge half of the debts of the Directory. The dey, creditor of Bacri for: 250000 francs, requires France the payment of the sum intended for the tradesmen livournais. As it understands that France which makes trail the business particularly does not intend to refund the loan to him which it had authorized and which however had been so profitable to leave it the embarrassment vis-a-vis the European powers which had been united against the Revolution, it is already in cold with the consul. But a business much more serious met the dey out of him: France had the concession of a commercial warehouse with the Hold, and via its Deval representative it had been committed not strengthening it. However, it missed with its promise, it strengthened the warehouse, and when the dey realized there and that he asked in writing explanations the French government without obtaining answer, he was satisfied to verbally ask explanations to the French Consul which chooses the party to take it top. At this point in time the dey carried himself and have a gesture scorning against the French Consul by means of his hunting fly. The April 30th 1827, in Algiers, the dey soufflette with his range the French Consul, Deval. The episode involves the diplomatic rupture with France.

The government of the restoration then draws pretext of the situation to invade Algeria and to punish the dey for his " insolence". The French consul and residents embark for France. The Minister for the war, Clermont-Thunder, proposes a military forwarding. The president of the Council, Villèle, and the dolphin are opposed to it. A blockade of Algiers, not very effective, is decided: the draft of the French buildings obliges them to be held far from the coasts which can tighten with more close the barbaresque pilots.

The Council of Ministers decides to organize a forwarding in Algeria on January 31st 1830.

Conquest of 1830

With Toulon the admiral Duperré takes the command of a armada of more than 600 ships and moves towards Algiers. The the Mediterranean at the beginning of the 19th century had been made safe by a British blockade so that the corsairs formed already part of the past.

June 14th in the morning the general of Bourmont unloads in Sidi Ferruch with: 30000 men.

June 19th, at the time of the Battle of Staoueli, the French troops take the advantage on the Turkish army.

July 5th the French occupy Algiers the White one; five days later, the dey Hussein accepts the capitulation in exchange of his freedom and the possibility of preserving his personal fortune. He definitively leaves the country with his family on board a French ship bound for an Italian port.

July 11th: 2500 Janissaire S flee for Asia. After 313 years, the Othomans give up the Régence and thus the administration of the country which they controlled since 1517.

In October the first battalions of Zouaves are set up. France monopolizes itself of all the grounds of the Beliks (colonists Turkish), and are créees the first units of Spahis.

Under Louis-Philippe Ier (1830-1848)

The first forwardings

December 1st, Louis-Philippe names the duke of Rovigo chief of the high-command in Algeria. This one succeeds in seizing Bône and implements colonization actively. The violence of its actions shocks as much as he is recalled in 1833. He dies on June 2nd of the same year. (...)

A limited conquest

(...) February 26th: cease-fire enters the general Desmichels and the emir Abd El-Kader. Mostafa Ben Smaïl refuses to recognize the authority of Abd El-Kader. This last, with the assistance of its French allies, is victorious of Mostafa Ben Smaïl on July 13rd. July 22nd: Algeria becomes " French possession of Africa of Nord"

The " convention of the figuier" is signed, in June 1835, between France and the tribes of Douaïr and Zmela which become " then; French subjects ". Abd El Kader attacks allied tribes of France and beats the Trézel general in the marshes of Makta close to its stronghold of Mascara. It encircles Oran during 40 days. Arrived in reinforcement of metropolis the general Bugeaud inflicts a defeat with Abd El Kader.

(...)

In November 1836, the marshal Bertrand Clauzel orders the attack on Constantine which turns to the disaster; the Berber riders ebb in mass. The commander Nicolas Changarnier however manages to protect the withdrawal from the French troops. Constantine prolongs resistance.

The Traité of Tafna is signed, the May 30th 1837, between the general Bugeaud and Abd El-Kader which recognizes the sovereignty of France in exchange of capacities extended on the provinces of Koléa, Médéa and Tlemcen where it can preserve 59 000 men-at-arms.

The French Army passes, in September 1839, the “iron Doors” in the chain of the Bibans, territory which the emir intended to annex. Abd El-Kader, considering that it is about a rupture of the treaty of Tafna, begins again, the October 15th 1839, the war against France.

Rendering of Abd El-Kader

The February 22nd Bugeaud is the new General governor of Algeria. August 23rd 1841 the Sheik el Kadiri, at a meeting to the Cairo, publishes a Fatwa (decision in conformity with the principles of Sonna and the Coran) which specifies that the tribes are authorized not to obey Abd El-Kader, and that it is foolish to make the war with the Christians, since those let the Moslems exert their worship freely.

(...)

The May 16th 1843 the duke of Aumale attacks the Smala of Abd El Kader making of many prisoners who are exiled.

See also: Taken of the tribe of Abd El Kader by the duke of Aumale

The 1844, France creates the Arab Bureaux with an aim of establishing a contact with the indigenous population.

(...)

August 14th, 1844 the Bugeaud general crushes the army of the Moroccan Sultan to the Bataille of Isly. The Moroccan army was folded up in direction of Taza, it had just lost the 1st war of its history, like its prestige of military and marine invincibility, sacrificing in this battle, 800 dead fallen with the field from honor and as many casualties. The Sultan whose treasure is ruined then engages to prohibit his territory with Adb El-Kader.

September 23rd the troops of Abd El Kader leave victorious at the time of the Bataille of Sidi-Brahim engaged by colonel Montagnac. The French survivors resist 3 days in the Marabout of Sidi Brahim. This battle is the battle of reference for the Chasseurs to foot.

(...)

In December 1847 Abd El Kader goes to Spahis colonel Yusuf. Placed under house arrest during four years in France, the Emir was released by Napoleon III, visited several cities of the metropolis before joining Damas and resides the remainder of his life in Syria.

December 11th 1848 the Constitution of 1848 proclaims Algeria integral part of the French territory. Bône, Oran and of Algiers becomes the prefectures of three French departments (Algiers, Oran and Constantine). The Moslems and Jews of Algeria become “prone French” under the mode of the indigénat.

Last resistances

The Algerian territory is thus officially annexed by France, but in the facts, all the area of Kabylie still resists. The French Army of Africa then controls all North-West of Algeria. The successes gained by the French Army over resistance with Abd el-Kader, reinforce French confidence, and make it possible to issue, after debates, the conquest of Kabylie.

Between 1849 and 1852, the French domination extends to the Petite Kabylie. In July 1857, of the tribes of Grande Kabylie go, the capture of the maraboute Lalla Fatma Soumer does not put a term nevertheless at resistance. The kabylie is raised until the beginning of the year 1870. In the south, the catch of Laghouat and Touggourt, the tender of Bless-Me zab of the Mzab (1852) and that of Souf, moves back the limits of Algeria until the large desert.

Under Napoleon III (1848-1870)

Napoleon III tries to transform the conquest into a “Arab kingdom” associated with France and from which it would be itself the sovereign: the colonists and the economic interests of Algeria will be savage opponents of the Emperor going until claiming an election.

In a letter of the February 6th 1863, the Emperor with the marshal Duke of Malakoff, published in the universal Moniteur , by which it was prescribed to return the tribes or fractions of tribes non-transferable owners of the territories that they occupy with fixed residence, and of which they have the traditional pleasure, in some title that it is . Algeria being declared by the sovereign, not a colony itself, but an Arab kingdom. . Napoleon III decides to visit Algeria. This visit lasts six weeks, it is received everywhere with enthusiasm: In whole Algeria, the colonists repeating hundred times per day: “The Emperor came, it saw, we are saved. ” Deaths them even, those which succumbed in the fight of the man civilized against a wild nature, against pestilential miasmas of marsh; deaths are linked with alive to repeat: “Would be welcome, César, deaths greet you. ” It is with the amazement of the colonists that a senatus consult, the property of the ground whom they occupy was reserved for the indigenous tribes, and of the commissions of execution

In 1865, 225.000 colonists, French or Europeans have approximately 700.000 hectares. But colonization is declared satisfied if , one requires of the natives, either by acquisition, or by expropriation, a complement of 400.000 hectares . July 14th, 1865, a senatus consult (a law) makes it possible to the Moslems to acquire the French citizenship while escaping in an individual capacity with the Koranic statute with the profit from the French civil law; but that remains theoretical insofar as the French citizenship were granted with difficulty to indigenous Algerian however titular of French nationality than to a foreigner.

The December 27th 1866, a decree creates municipal councils elected by four colleges separate French, Moslem, Jewish and foreign European; the French have two thirds of the seats; in the “communes of full exercise”, the mayors have indigenous assistants.

French Algeria: Colonization

The fall of Napoleon III in 1870 is accommodated with relief; the colonists will be able to manage themselves. The annexation of the Alsace-Lorraine involves an exodus of population which will come to Algeria: more than 500.000 hectares were confiscated after the revolt of 1871 and were allotted to the refugees. The number of the colonists passes from 245.000 in 1872 to more than 750.000 in 1914. On its side the natives see their number passing from 2.000.000 to 5.000.000 thanks to the medical action of colonization. The European Community and the Muslim community live together but without mixing; the laws of the Third Republic do nothing but grow division by separating more and more French from Algeria and in addition the French subjects governed by a specific code. The Crémieux decree by granting to the Algerian Jews the same statute as French of Algeria divides even more Algerian.

On 7 million hectares of cultivable grounds, colonization seized in one century 2,9 million hectares - which were, also, grounds of better quality. This colonization drove out hundreds of thousands of peasants, dispossessed, and become a wandering army the rural ones clochardized.

Under the Third Republic (1870-1947)

The advent of the third republic causes great disorders in Algeria, in particular between civilians and soldiers. The Third Republic follows a policy of assimilation: Francization of the names, suppression of the Moslem habits.

The religion

The law of December 1905 of separation of the worships and the State was not applied in Algeria for the Muslim cult: Imâms and Muftî S was civils servant held to say the official word.

Crémieux decrees

October 24th 1870, by the Decree Crémieux, the 37.000 Juifs of Algeria pass from the statute of prone French to the statute of French citizen. This statute is also granted to all the foreigners originating in Europe (Italy, Spain, Malta…). This decree was promulgated with Tours by the government of National defense. Its author is the Minister for Justice, Isaac Adolphe Crémieux Jewish lawyer. This decree is felt by the Algerian natives as an injustice because they even remain submitted to the senatus consult of July 1865 on the statute of the people.

Here the text of this decree the indigenous Jews of the departments of Algeria are declared citizens French; consequently, their real statute and their personal status, as from the promulgation of this decree, will be regulated by the French law. All legislative measures, decree, payment or ordinance contrary are abolished.

There are also other decrees taken the same day which institute in Algeria the civil mode but which does not remove the Arab offices, symbol of the policy which had been followed by the emperor and hate by the colonists. One of these decrees institutionne a jury, which delivers from now on the natives translated into Court of Assizes to arbitrary of the colonists, thus violating the principle of the judgment by its pars.

Crémieux takes a last decree in December 1870 which puts definitively fine at the offices, thus threatening the natives of future land expropriations. This decree creates a great agitation among the natives.

Revolts of 1871

Following the decrees, with the defeat of France, the fight that colonists and soldiers for the capacity and because of the miserable condition of the natives deliver themselves supported by several years of dryness and plagues, the large last revolts Algeria takes place in 1871. It begins in January with the business from Spahis, worsens in March with the entry in dissidence of Mohamed El Mokrani, which calls then upon the Sheik El Haddad, the large Master of the brotherhood of the Rahmaniya. The revolt fails and the repression organized by the French proves particularly severe.

Revolt of Spahis

Following an order which was given by the army to send them in France, the Spahis are raised at the end of January 1871 in Moudjebeur and Ain-Guettar, in the Algerian East at the border with Tunisia. The movement is quickly repressed.

Revolt of Mokrani

Mokrani was one of the chiefs Algerian who enjoyed a power surely larger than that of the others. His/her father had proposed his services and had helped the Valée marshal in 1838, which had been worth to him the title of khalifa of Medjana, very wide territory, but after him to have left musculus rectus abdominis the army had each year cut down on its prerogatives and had benefitted from its death in 1853 to substitute for the function of khalifa that of bachaga which had been entrusted to his/her Mohammed son. That Ci had undergone vexatious measurements, the Crémieux decrees made him fear a confiscation of its grounds and the advent of the civil mode made him fear for its functions. He revolts in March but its movement does not have a great scope. It calls then upon the sheik El Haddad of the brotherhood of Ramahniya which launches a call to the Djihad on the market of Seddouk in April 1871. More than 150000 Kabyles are raised and the movement touches most of Algérie.La revolt is however quickly and severely repressed.

The column expeditionary intended to repress the Eastern revolt of Kabylie, was joined together on August 2nd near the small town of Milia under the orders of the general of Lacroix, ordering the division of Constantine. The 5, our troops penetrated on the enemy territory and camped successively in Ain Nakhela, on the Endja Wadi, then in Fedj-Baïnen, after having inflicted hard punishments with the quotas which had tried to be opposed to their walk. The tribes of the confederation of Zouarà, were entirely reduced to mercy, and delivered hostages and fines.
Rejected, after the fire of their villages, into the wooded ravines of the Wadi Reiterated and driven back with the foot of the gigantic rock of Sidi-Mârouf, the insurrectionists tested very serious losses. The moral effect produced by these severe lessons, which it was high time to give to these turbulent and incorrigible populations, was immense
On this same date, all the tribes of the circle of Gigelli and those of Right Bank of the Wadi-el-Kébir (low Roumel), terrified by the punishments inflicted in Zouar' has and with the Wadi Reiterated, hastened to go to beseech pity and to ask grace Thus in little time, from August 2nd to 22nd, all the tribes included/understood in the quadrilateral: Constantine, Collo, Gigelli and Mila, returned in the order and the duty, which they will not have any more desire for leaving|Charles Féraud

The goods of insurgent having escaped with the destruction are confiscated according to the measures recommended by the Général of Lacroix in December 1871:

The only means of preventing the revolts, it is to introduce a many European population; to group it on the strategic roads and lines in order to parcel out the territory in zones which will not be able at a time given to meet.
The grounds of the fields are insufficient evil located and scattered. Those which one could obtain by the sequestration meet only the wanted conditions, but it would be necessary that they were immediately available.

The law of the June 21st 1871 (revised by the decrees of the July 15th, 1874 and September 30th, 1878) allots 100.000 hectares of grounds in Algeria to the immigrants of Alsace-Lorraine.

The July 26th 1873, is promulgated the law Warnier (according to the name of the president of the parliamentary commission Auguste Warnier) aiming francizing the grounds Moslem woman and at delivering with the natives of the documents of title. This law gives place to various abuses and a new law will supplement it in 1887. Its application will be suspended in 1890.

Code indigénat

The Code of the indigénat is adopted the June 28th 1881: this code distinguished two categories of citizen: French citizens (of metropolitan stock) and French subjects, i.e. the black Africans, the Madagascans, the Algerians, the West-Indians, Mélanésiens, etc the French subjects subjected to the Code of the indigénat were private major part of their freedom and their political rights; they preserved at the civil plan only their personal status, of religious or usual origin.

From 1881, especially in Kabylie, the Code of the indigénat will impose a forced Arabisation of the patronyms on the local populations which until this time still carried for some of the names to Latin consonance. The patronymic names of the Algerians of today are thus not those their ancestors in a proportion more of the three-quarters.

The Code was supplied with all kinds of prohibitions to which the offenses were liable to imprisonment or deportation. After the law of the May 7th 1946 (Law Rolls Gueye) abolishing the Code of the indigénat, the autochtones (New Caledonia, Madagascar, Algérie, etc) could again circulate freely, of day like night, and recover the right to reside where they wanted and to freely work. However, the French authorities succeeded in making perdurer the Code of the indigénat in Algeria until independence (1962) by maintaining the statute Moslem and by applying for example the principle of collective responsibility which consisted in punishing a whole village for the infringement of only one of its members.

In 1889, a law grants the French nationality 21 years to foreign Europeans born in Algérie. To leave 1896, the administration of Algeria depends directly on the ministry for the interior. In 1898, take place several European demonstrations anti-Jewish. The colonists have 1.000.000 of hectares. Algeria has a new statute in 1900: it profits from a special budget, of a general governor who holds all the capacities. The electoral system ensures Europeans the preponderance. In 1912, Proclamation Algerian Young people.

Contribution of the Algerians to “the Great War”

To face the human losses of the Great War, France recruited Maghrebians which was relatively easy thanks to paternalism of the officers and in an general indifference in spite of some revolts in 1914 and 1917: the second was can be inspired by the call of the Turks.

Between two wars

Charles Jonnart creates several reforms, in favor of Moslem Algerian, who are adopted under the law of the February 4th 1919, so called " law Jonnart". In 1930, manifestations of the centenary of the Prise of Algiers are felt like a provocation by the population. In 1936, the bill Blum-Violet, for the granting of political rights to certain Moslems, is presented but he will be refused unanimously at the time of the congress of Algiers of the January 14th 1937.

Algeria during the Second world war

Under the Fourth Republic

The French troops in Algeria before the release of the war of Algeria are weak: 40.000 men in 1948,48 300 at June 1st, 1954, 81.145 at January 1st, 1955. The war of Indo-China absorbs the military executives, and makes fight the Maghrebians which counts for 1/4 of the manpower of the task force.

The May 8th 1945, whereas the Second world war ends in Europe, in Algeria, of the nationalist demonstrations are hard repressed by the French Army ; between 10 000 and 45 000 Algerians are killed.

The war of Algeria (1954 to 1962)

Period: the Algerian Republic (since 1962)

Time of the sole party: (1962 to 1989)

Ahmed Ben Bella directs the country between 1962 and 1965, date on which it is victim of a putsch of the army. Houari Boumedienne reign until its death in 1978. Under the presidency of Chadli Bendjedid, the crisis is economic - in 1986, the fall of the dollar involves a strong fall of the incomes resulting from the Hydrocarbure S - and policy.

The capacity must also face the first popular movements since independence. Vis-a-vis the Berber Spring of 1980, then to the riots of Sétif in 1986, it reacts by repression. In October 1988, the army decides to shoot at the rioters (more than 500 dead) (see the article: Riots of October 1988 in Algeria ). The authorities make apparent concessions: a news Constitution, introduction of the multi-party system and a mode of Freedom of the press.

Civil war (1989-1999)

References

Elements of bibliography

Professor Emile Felix Gauthier, Genséric, king of the Vandals , Payot, Paris, 1935.
Ibn Khaldoun, History of Berber the , Translation of the Baron de Slane, Volumes I, II, II and IV, Algiers, 1852-1856.
Professor Emile Felix Gauthier, obscure centuries of Mahgreb , Paris, Payot 1927.
Meriam Demnati, Lucien-Samir Oulahbib, Masri Feki and Moïse Rahmani, In the shade of Islam. Minorities and minorized , Filipson ED., Brussels, 2005.
Diego de Haedo, History of the kings d' Alger (" Topographia E general Historia of Argel" , Valladolid, 1612) , Translation of H.D. of Grammont, Bouchène, Paris, 1998.
Professor Mahfoud Kaddache, political life in Algiers of 1919 to 1939 , SNED, Algiers, 1970.
Professor Yves Maxime Danan, political life in Algiers of 1940 to 1944 , L.G.D.J., Paris, 1963.
Gilbert Meynier, Algeria of the origins: Prehistory with the advent of Islam , the discovery, 2007,

See too

History of Béjaïa
History of the Jews of Algeria
List of the governors of Algeria
Colonization of Algeria

See also: List of the leaders of Algeria

External bonds

Institute of the Arab world - Document pdf Algeria in Heritage
Personal site of Aj.Garcia - Digitalization and correction of historical documents of Algeria.
Marxists.org Articles Abd El Kader , Bugeaud and Algeria of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels for The New American Cyclopaedia , 1858.
a vision of the conquète of Algeria
History of the wilayas of Algeria

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